THE ELECTRIFICATION 
ior RAILWAY TERMINALS 



A EBPORT PREPARED UNDER THE AUSPICES 

OF THE MAYOR AND COMMITTEE ON 

LOCAL TRANSPORTATION OF 

THE CITY COUNCIL 




CHICAGO 

R. E. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY 

1908 




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THE ELECTEIFICATION 91Ii 
OF EAILWAY TERMINALS^^^ 

AS A CURE FOR THE LOCOMOTIVE SMOKE EVIL 

IN CHICAGO WITH SPECIAL CONSIDERATION 

OF THE ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD 



PREPARED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE MAYOR AND 
Cl.sXCo%^ COMMITTEE ON LOCAL TRANSPORTATION 
J OF THE CITY COUNCIL 

BY 

MILTON J. FOREMAN 

Chairman, Committee on Local Transportation, Citt CotTNcn* 

WILLIAM A. EVANS 

Commissioner of Health 

PAUL P. BIRD 

Smoke Inspector 

GILBERT E. RYDER 

Smoke Inspection Department 

HERBERT H. EVANS 

Mechanical Engineer 



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CHICAGO 

R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY 

1908 






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FRED A. BUSSE, Mayor. 



COMMITTEE ON LOCAL TRANSPORTATION OF THE 
CITY COUNCIL OF THE CITY OF CHICAGO. 

Milton J. Foreman, Chairman, 

John W. McNeal, Nicholas R. Finn, 

Linn H. Young, Charles M. Foell, 

Dennis J. Eg an, Winfield P. Dunn, 

Michael Zimmer, Peter Reinberg, 

William E. Dever, Henry J. Siewert, 

John P. Stewart, Ernest Bihl. 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY 

TERMINALS 



To The Mayor and The Committee on Local Transportation of 
The City Council, City of Chicago, 1908. 

The Honorables Fred A. Busse, Mayor, Milton J. Foreman, 
Chairman, John W. McNeal, Linn H. Young, Dennis J. Egan, 
Michael Zimmer, William E. Dever, John P. Stewart, Nicholas 
R. Finn, Charles M. Foell, Winfield P. Dunn, Peter Reinberg, 
Henry J. Siewert, Ernest Bihl. 

Gentlemen: 

In obedience to your request, we have investigated the question of 
electrification of railroads. The questions that we have tried to deter- 
mine are : 

1. Does the smoke from the present method of locomotive traction 
do harm, and if so, how much? 

2. Would the substitution of electric traction within the city of 
Chicago rectify this condition? 

3. Has electric traction developed to the point where it has demon- 
strated its availabihty? 

4. Would electrification of the terminal zones be a reasonable de- 
mand on the railroads? 

This point being duly weighed, resolves itself into two sub-questions : 
(a) Is electric operation physically feasible? (h) Are the financial 
situations such as to make it feasible? 

The major portion of our study has been on the fourth of these 
questions, and especially on division (a) thereof. This, in turn, divides 
itself into three questions: suburban passenger, through passenger, 
and freight business. The advantage from handling the first of these 
by electricity is generally conceded. The second is probably proven. 
Most of our study is on the third of these, — relatively the greatest 
nuisance of the three, and the one to which least thought has been given. 

We understand that it is not our function to suggest plans or to 
specify details except in so far as they are necessary to get a clear 

7 



8 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERfflNALS 

comprehension of the busmess. Only such details wiU be set forth in 
our report as are necessaiy for a judicial consideration by the reader of 
the points made in the paper. 

We imderstand that many roads have already studied the problem. 
Before any railroad electrifies, it will make many studies not only on 
their problems, but on those of the general proposition. Furthermore, 
each year's experience wiU tend to solve some of the remaining prob- 
lems. It would be fairer to try the question of electrification by the 
standards of immediate reasonable expectation than by the practice of, 
say, three years ago. Each of these points of view we have tried to 
avoid, though the influence of each will be in some measm^e apparent. 

In our judgment, it has seemed best to study one concrete situation 
rather than a more generahzed surv^ey. 'WTiile the problems of the roads 
differ, the basic principles are the same. If electrification is found to be 
fundamentally feasible in the case of one road, it will only require adap- 
tation to fit the conclusions to any road. 

The Illinois Central has been selected as the basis of this study. 
The reasons for this are twofold: First, the railroad comes into the 
very best part of to^Ti. It occupies much of the lake front. It is in 
the midst of a park and boulevard system which it at present greatly 
harms, and for the construction and maintenance of which the people 
have spent large sums of money and plan to spend very much more. 
Second, when these studies were taking shape, President Harahan wrote 
the folloT^lng letter, reptying to one from Mr. Henry Morris of the 
Hamilton Club: 

Illinois Central R.uliioad Company 
Office of the President 

Chicago, April 4, 1908. 
^Ir. Henry C. Morris, 

Chairman Comroittee on Municipal Art and Ci^ic Improvement, the 
Hamilton Club, Chicago. 

Mij dear Sir, — Rephing to your letter of April 3d, with reference to 
the topics undertaken b}^ your committee, and referred to in your pam- 
phlet as items 1, 2, 3, 4, and 20,, I beg to reply as foUows: 

With regard to the substitution of electric power for steam on loco- 
motives, would say that it is a very large question, and one which cannot 
be answered off-hand. The electrification of steam railroads as far as 
pertains to the handling of business outside of cities is a simple question, 
but when it comes to the electrification of large terminals like those of the 
railways of Chicago, it is an entirely different question. 

The experience in the electrification of the Xew York Central terminals 
in Xew York City has developed many difficulties, one of the greatest of 
which is a financial one. It is apparent to any business man that he cannot 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 9 

afford to make a large initial outlay unless such outlay is compensated by a 
reduction in the cost of operation. The exact contrary has been the ex- 
perience with reference to the New York Central terminals in New York 
City. This, coupled with the fact that the present time is not an oppor- 
tune one for making large expenditures, will necessarily postpone the 
matter of electrification of large terminals Hke those of the railways of 
Chicago. 

The art of electrification of steam railroads is yet in its infancy and 
the experience has not been sufficient to demonstrate the most economical 
type. There is no question, however, that with the advancement of the 
art the future will see a large development in the electrification of existing 
steam roads. It is not possible, however, in any business to set aside the 
present plant, in which these is a large investment, and make a further 
large initial expenditure to provide an entirely new equipment. I think 
it must be recognized as an economic fact that large outlays of money 
cannot be made without compensating returns. 

With reference to the abatement of the smoke nuisance, it has been 
our purpose in the past, and will be in the future, to co-operate with every 
movement that tends toward the suppression of this element, and we are 
constantly on the alert, training our men and discipHning them in the 
correct method of using coal on our locomotives. The fault, however, 
does not entirely lie with the railroads. If you will observe the volumes 
of smoke made by factories and vessels entering Chicago harbor, I think 
j^ou wiU reach the conclusion that even with the ehmination of the smoke 
nuisance by steam locomotives, only a very small part of this nuisance 
will have been abated. 

With reference to suppression of unnecessary noise, it is a rule with us 
that no unnecessary noise shall be made by locomotives on our terminals. 

Regarding the promotion of a higher degree of pubHc spirit on the 
part of railroad companies in the better maintenance of conditions around 
passenger and freight terminals, beg to say that we are in hearty accord 
with such a movement, and are making an earnest endeavor to promote 
these conditions. 

I think the work undertaken in your Civic Programme is a most com- 
mendable one, and merits the hearty co-operation of manufacturing, 
industrial, and transportation interests of Chicago. 

Yours truly, 

J. T. Harahan, 

President. 

This so clearly expressed the situation just as we saw it, it specified 
so exactly the need for just the study that we were making, that we de- 
cided to make the Illinois Central the particular problem to be studied. 
What we find to be true of them can be and will be adapted to each of 
the roads entering the city. 

If it will pay them to electrify then it will pay the others; if they 
are doing harm by smoke and therefore should electrify, then should 
the others. 

Furthermore the roads occupying one railroad station, generally 



10 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

speaking, use much track and many other commodities in common. 
It will not represent the highest economy of operation or of upkeep to 
have one road electrified and another not. Therefore, practically, the 
matter will work out by the consideration of all the roads entering 
one station as a unit. Into the IlUnois '^Central station the Michigan 
Central, the Big Four, and the Wisconsin Central run. The Michigan 
Central has a trackage arrangement. Economy would demand that 
the Michigan Central adopt electric traction not only on the Illinois 
Central tracks from Kensington in, but also to Hammond, or maybe 
beyond before many years. The Big Four has a wheelage contract 
and will therefore be served by the same traction arrangements as 
the Illinois Central. The Wisconsin Central has a trackage agree- 
ment from Harlem Junction in, and should pursue the^same general 
policy as the Illinois Central. 'The few thousand feet of track called the 
St. Charles Air Line, and owned by the IlUnois Central and three other 
lines would probably be used for a while for both electric and locomotive 
traction. The Chicago, Cincinnati, and Louisville will be treated as 
the Michigan Central. The Kensington and Eastern is already electri- 
fied east of Kensington. 

Certainly with this group, and probably with each group, group 
treatment will be the most practicable. 

The different subjects to which we have addressed our inquiries 
appear as the subject heads, and are as follows: 

The Harm of Smoke. W. A. Evans. 

The Prevention of Smoke in Chicago. Paul P. Bird. 

The Railroads as Smoke Producers. G. E. Ryder. 

The Possibility of Smokeless Steam Locomotive Traction. G. E. 
Ryder. 

Anthracite Coal and Coke as Remedies. Paul P. Bird 

Electrification as a Remedy with Special Consideration of the Illi- 
nois Central. H. H. Evans. 

A. The General Aspects of Electrification. 

B. Systems Available for Electrification. 

C. Existent Installations of Electrical Traction. 

D. The Electric Handling of Freight. 

E. Notes on Economics. 

F. The Situation in Chicago, 
(a) General. 

lb) The lUinois Central. 
1. Through passenger. 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 11 

2. Suburban passenger. 

3. Freight. 

4. Probable cost and results of the electrification of this 

terminal. 
The Railroads in Relation to Local Transportation. Milton J. 
Foreman. 

Conclusions. Milton J. Foreman, W. A. Evans, P. P. Bird, G. E. 
Ryder, H. H. Evans. 

Addenda. Charts and Computations. P. P. Bird, G. E. Ryder, 
H. H. Evans. 

As these chapters are written by different people and as the same 
subject is sometimes considered by the game writer from a somewhat 
different viewpoint, some duplication will be found. Such duplications 
we have chosen to leave, as they seem necessary in the places where 
they appear. 

The results of these studies we respectfully submit. 

Signed, 
Milton J. Foreman, 
Chairman Committee on Local 
Transportation, City Coimcil. 
W. A. Evans, 

Commissioner of Health. 
Paul P. Bird, 

Smoke Inspector. 
G. E. Ryder, 

Smoke Inspection Department. 
H. H. Evans. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The material and information contained in this report and the ad- 
ditional information and ideas upon the whole of which we have based 
om* conclusions have come to us from a number of som'ces. We wish 
to thank the contributors thereto for the uniform kindness and obhga- 
tions with which we have met in our investigation. 

In making this study several visits were made to electric-traction 
plants in operation. In July, 1907, Mayor Busse, Comptroller Wilson, 
Alderman Foreman, Mr. Donnelley, and Dr. Evans inspected the New 
York Central plant and were shown the workings of the system by Vice- 
President Wilgus. In October, Mr. Bird attended the discussion of Mr. 
Wilgus's paper before the Aoierican Society of Ci\dl Engineers. On the 
same date. Dr. Evans attended the lecture by Mr. Armstrong before the 
Western Section American Institute of Electrical Engineers. In June, 
1908, Dr. Evans, Mr. H. H. Evans, and Mr. G. E. Ryder visited the 
following places, studying electrical traction: International Traction 
Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.: General Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y. : 
New York Central terminal, in and near New York; the various power- 
plants in and near New York of the local traction or hghting companies; 
New York, New Haven & Hartford electrification, Woodla\Mi, N. Y., to 
Stamford, Conn. ; Long Island railroad; Baltimore & Ohio electrification, 
Baltunore; Washington, Baltunore & Annapohs, Baltimore to AnnapoUs; 
Baltimore & Annapohs Short Line: Westinghouse plants at Pittsburg; 
AUis Chalmers Company plants at Milwaukee; Grand Trunk electrifi^ca- 
tion at Port Huron, Mich.; Michigan Central tuonel at Detroit, Mich,; 
IJniversit}^ of lUinois, LTrbana, Illinois; Aurora, Elgin, & Chicago electric 
railway; street car and elevated fines in Chicago and those of the 
Illinois Traction Company. 

We are glad to acknowledge valuable information and help from 
the following som'ces: 

^Ir. W. S. Murray, New York, New Haven vt Hartford railroad. 

Mr. E. B. Katte, New York Central & Hudson River railroad. 

Mr. F. J. Sprague, New York City. 

Mr. L. B. StilweU, New York City. 

Mr. W. J. Wilgus, New York City. 

Mr. L. S. Wells, Long Island railroad. 

12 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 13 

« 
Mr. Egan of the Grand Trunk railroad. 

Messrs. Armstrong and Potter and other members of the staff of the 
General Electric Co. 

The officials of the Westinghouse and Allis Chalmers companies. 

The officials of the Union Pacific railroad and Baltimore & Ohio 
railroad. 

Mr. L. A. Lamb of ''At the Market." 

Mr. C. L. Furey of the American Guarantee Co. 

The detail engineering work has been done by the staff of the Smoke 
Inspection Department. 

We have made free use of the following literature : 

Transactions American Society Civil Engineers. 

Transactions American Institute Electrical Engineers. 

Transactions American Society Mechanical Engineers. 

Journal American Society Naval Engineers. 

Journal Institute of Civil Engineers. 

Journal Institution of Electrical Engineers. 

Proceedings Western Society of Engineers. 

Proceedings New York Railway Club. 

Journal Royal Sanitary Institute. 

Journal American Medical Association. 

Boston Medical & Surgical Journal. 

The Electrification of the Suburban Zone of the New York Cen- 
tral. W. J. Wilgus. 

On the Substitution of the Electric Motor for the Steam Locomotive. 
L. B. Stilwell. 

Some Facts and Problems bearing upon Electric Trunk Line Opera- 
tion. F. J. Sprague. 

Various contributions to the technical press in recent years of Messrs. 
Lamme, Mailloux, De Muralt, Sprague, Stilwell, Brinckerhoff, Arnold, 
Wilgus, White, Street, Lyford, Gibbs, Arnold, Armstrong, and Potter. 

Engineering News. 

Engineering Record. 

Engineering. 

Engineering Magazine. 

Railway & Engineering Review. 

Scientific American. 

Street Railwa}^ Journal. 

Railway Age. 

Railway Gazette. 



14 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Cassier's Magazine. 

Electrical Railway Review. 

Electric Journal. 

Elektrische Bahnen. 

L' Electricita. 

Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure. 

Report of Electric Railway Test Commission of the Louisiana Pur- 
chase Exposition. 

U. S. Census Bureau Report, Street and Electric Railways, 1902. 

Reports Department of Track Elevation, City of Chicago. 

Report Interstate Commerce Commission 1906. 

Report Board of Railroad Commissioners, Massachusetts, 1908. 

Report Board of Railroad Commissioners, Connecticut, 1907. 

Report Board of Railroad Commissioners, Pennsylvania, 1907. 

Report Pubhc Service Commission, 2d District, New York, 1907. 

Report Railroad and Warehouse Commission, Illinois, 1907. 

Report Smoke Abatement, Chamber of Commerce, Syracuse. 

Address on the Smoke Problem. C. A. L. Reed. 

Reports Boston Rapid Transit Commission. 

How to biuTi Illinois Coal without Smoke. Breckenridge. 

Atti della Commissione incaricata di studiare Tapplicazione della 
trazione elettrica aUi ferrovie di traffico limitato. 

Annual reports Health Department, City of Chicago. 

Report on the Chicago Transportation Problem. Arnold. 

Electric Railway Engineering. Parshall & Hobart. 

Electric Railway Practice. Herrick & Boynton. 

Electric Railways. Ashe & Kieley. 

Electrical Railroading. Small. 

Electric Traction. R. H. Smith. 

Trait e pratique de traction electrique. Barbillon & Graffisch. 

Les chemins de fer electriques. Marechal. 

Le ferrovie a trazione elettrica. Giorgi. 

Note sur la traction electrique des chemins de fer. Tissot. 

La trazione elettrica sulle ferrovie e tramvie. 

Le probleme de la traction electrique des chemins de fer; sa solu- 
tion. Chenet. 

Elektrische Tertiar bahnen. Frost. 

Der elektrische Betrieb mittels Dreiphasen. Drehstrom auf den 
itaUenischen VoUbahnlinien in Valtellina. Kohn. 

Stray Currents from Electric Railways. Michalke. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 15 

Storage Battery Engineering. Lyndon. 

The application of electricity to railway working. Langdon. 

Economics of Railway Operation. Byers. 

Notes on Electric Railway Economics. Gotshall. 

Historical Sketch of the Illinois Central. Ackerman. 

Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers. 

Electrical Engineers' Pocket Book. Foster. 

Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book. Kent. 

Engineering and Electric Traction Pocket Book. Dawson. 

Handbook of Cost Data. Gillette. 

American Street Railway Investments, 1907. 

Stone & Webster. Electric Railway & Lighting Properties. 

Poor's Manual of Railroads, 1908. 



THE HARM OF SMOKE 

W. A. EVANS 

The disadvantages of smoke are easy to demonstrate in so far as 
it ruins unwashable clothes and dirties washable clc thes and greatly 
harms properties such as buildbigs and other things which are not easily 
cleaned. 

The money cost from smoke is a very large item. Says C. A. L. 
Reed, in addressing the Women's Clubs of Cincinnati, Ohio (American 
Medicine, AprH 25, 1905) : 

''But martyrs as are women to the smoke nuisance, there are other 
interests that are equally violated by its existence and perpetuation. 
Thus it would be interesting to know if it were possible to ascertain how 
many thousands of dollars' worth of merchandise is annually lost by our 
dry-goods merchants, solely through the ravages of smoke and soot. 
Clothiers, milliners, dressmakers, tailors, outfitters, grocers, druggists, 
are siagularly subject to damage from the same cause. Jewelers are 
put to extra labor and expense to protect their wares, especially silver- 
plate, agaiQst the mfiuence of corroding gases that impregnate the 
atmosphere as the result of imperfect combustion ui numerous manu- 
facturiag estabhshments. The damage that has been done and is being 
done to residence property id CiQckmati and other cities similarly 
enshrouded with smoke is beyond computation. And the worst of it 
is that the inhabitants who have fled from their homes, many of them 
elegant and even palatial estabhshments, leaviag them at a great loss 
to the ravages of smoke, are followed by the same pest that, presumably 
ui the interest of the manufacturer, now thi-eatens to make our suburbs as 
untenantable as om' downtown districts. There is, ia fact, not a single 
branch of the mercantile business, there is no private property interest 
that is not forced ia this way to pay tribute to what I am convinced 
are totally unnecessary conditions imposed upon our great urban com- 
munities by the manufactm-ing interests that are, in fact, not in the 
least advanced by these same conditions. I am reliably informed that, 
quite to the contrary, these same manufacturers who thus insist upon 
defiling our cities, sacrifice from 15% to 25% of their fuel to accomphsh 
the purpose — not dehberately, perhaps — not mahciously, certainly, 

— but ignorantly, or at least thoughtlessly. For, as Dr. Ohage, the able 

16 



THE HARM OF SMOKE 17 

health commissioner of St. Paul, recently remarked, 'Smoke is not a 
mark of industrial activity, but of industrial stupidity.' " 

In speaking- of the pollution of the air by smoke, Reed quotes 
the President ai^. saying: 

'^It would seem to be wise to go to the very Umit of the law, and to 
arrest the member of the company, or those highest up in the company, 
again and again with the shortest possible intervals, in order to put a 
stop to this nuisance that, so conducted on their part, amounts to a 
flagrant defiance of the law, and respect for public opinion." 

The Syracuse Commission quotes from the Cleveland Committee's 
report as follows: 

'^The presence of coal smoke in large quantities constitutes perhaps 
the greatest hindrance to the highest development of civic beauty and 
refinement. Its effect is seen in all plant life. The growth of green 
conifers is almost impossible, and only hardy and smooth-leaved trees 
are comparatively unaffected. 

''No definite estimate has been made of the amount of loss of vege- 
tation resulting directly from the presence of smoke and gas in the air, 
but the St. Louis Forestry Department figures conservatively an annual 
loss of 4 per cent, and these figiu*es may doubtless be assumed for Cleve- 
land. Ordinarily, flowering plants wither and die in smoky districts 
unless given especial care. 

"To a considerable extent the architectural effects of our buildings 
are destroyed by damage from this source. Buildings of almost every 
-material are in a few years brought to a common level — a grimy hue 
which robs them of their distinction. It is only through constant treat- 
ment by special process that stone buildings can be restored to their 
original color, and this process is frequently harmful to the surface and 
durability of the stone. Painted buildings in a short time lose their 
color because of the coating of soot and the effect of chemical gases. 
Prevailing conditions make impossible the successful use of lighter or 
more cheerful colors without constant and expensive renewal. 

"It is difficult to estimate the effect upon health of any considerable 
quantity of smoke and gas in the air. It is known, however, that it 
acts as an irritant to the lungs and throat and nasal passages; that it 
is one of the pre-disposing causes of disease in these organs, and that it 
aggravates any existing disease. An inspection of the screens which 
are used in hospitals to purify the air drawn through the ventilating 
system shows, after twenty-four hours, astonishing results which are 
more eloquent than any description can be. 



18 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

'The most tangible results from the smoke nuisance can be shown, 
perhaps, in the financial loss to the coromunity. It is, of course, im- 
possible to set forth anything Hke the total loss. A few carefully com- 
piled estimates, however, from actual experience, wiU suffice to indicate 
something of its magnitude. There are approximately four hundred 
retail dry-goods stores in Cleveland doing a business of from $10,000 to 
$3,000,000 or $4,000,000 a year. The owners of some of these stores 
estimate (and the same estimate is given in other cities) that of all white 
goods sold a clear loss of at least 10 per cent must be figured. Taking 
the single items of underwear, shirt waists, linens, and white dress goods, 
for the eleven department stores, the proprietors conservatively estimate 
their combined loss at $25,000. Consider, then, the loss in all lines of 
light goods for all four hundred stores. The wholesale dry-goods houses 
show a similar loss. There are in Cleveland fifty-five men's furnishing 
stores, and the conservative estimate of loss to these stores is placed at 
$15,000 annually. It is a simple matter to distinguish between the 
soil from ordinary dust and that due to the presence of coal smoke and 
gas. The former is easily removed; the other, due to an air saturated 
with smoke, is absorbed, rendering the fabric practically beyond re- 
demption, from the standpoint of the salesman. The stores mentioned 
represent only a small proportion of the trade directly affected. One 
hundred and fifteen tailors, twenty-nine cloak and suit manufacturers, 
forty-nine millinery estabhshments, eighteen hat and coat stores, 
thirteen skirt manufacturers, three collar and cuff manufacturers, and 
many other trades are affected in a similar degree. Aside from the dam- 
age to stock, an annual cost for cleaning, particularly among retail houses, 
must be included. Some conception of this loss may be had from a 
single instance. One retail estabhshment paid in just a year after the 
painting and decorating of its walls and ceilings, $1,800, for repainting 
and redecorating, made necessary entirely by the effect of smoke. Dur- 
ing the same year their bill for window cleaning was $2,000; 
for laundry pin-poses $1,500. This, in a large measure was due to the 
smoke nuisance. Multiply their figures by the thousands of business 
houses needing the same attention, in greater or less degree, and some 
estimate of the total cost in this direction may be obtained. To this 
should be added the cost of fighting, particularly in retail stores, fac- 
tories and offices, made necessary by the smoky atmosphere. Some of 
the larger houses charge several hundred dollars to this accoimt. 

''But a greater cost than all of these must be considered in the loss 
to the one hundred thousand homes of Cleveland. The constant need 



THE HARM OF SMOKE 19 

of cleaning of walls, ceilings, windows, carpets, rugs, and draperies; for 
redecorating and renewing, can only be realized by the house-owner 
or housekeeper. To this add the increased laundry bills for household 
linen, the dry cleaning of clothing, and the great additional wear re- 
sulting from this constant renovation. Consider also the permanent 
injury to books, pictures and similar articles. Though impossible of 
computation, it will be seen that the total of these items aggregates 
millions of dollars. The annual tribute which Cleveland must pay to 
the smoke nuisance is a sum sufficient in a single year to equip all plants, 
not so provided, with smoke-preventing devices." 

The Syracuse Conmiission says: "These statements apply to Syra- 
cuse as well as to Cleveland, due allowance being made for the differ- 
ence in size of the two cities, and for the fact that the Ohio coals are in 
general smokier and dirtier than those used in our city." 

When 23^ milHons of people are gathered, working and living, on 
195 square miles, some acres housing as many as three himdred at 
night, and many housing more than 1000 in the day, something is re- 
quired to maintain the chemical equilibrium of the air. 

The three considerable factors in this are the air which serves to 
dilute, the waters which absorb, and the vegetation which transforms. 
Fortimately for Chicago, we have winds during most every hour of most 
every day. Again, fortunately for us. Lake Michigan serves to purify 
our air much of the time. It is unfortunate that a good part of the 
air which comes over the water to the shore is polluted before it be- 
comes available for the use of the people by the smoke of railroads and 
industrial plants located on the lake front. 

The country which surrounds Chicago is not as advantageous from 
the standpoint of vegetation as could be desired. It is relatively free 
from trees and other forms of vegetation. There is, therefore, the 
greater need of trees and vegetation within the city. Our streets are 
poorly shaded. The trees along the boulevards are runty. The small 
squares and parks have none. The reasons for these shortcomings 
are several: 

1. Much of the groimd is covered by roofs and paving, and is 
drained by sewers, so that the soil is dry. 

2. The soil is packed. 

3. It is poor. 

4. The air is so charged with harmful gases that vegetation cannot 
grow. 

For example, in Grant Park, where heavy wooding is so greatly 



20 ELZCTRIFICATIOX OF K\ILWAY TER:NnXAI8 

needed to maintain atmospheric equilibrium, there is so much air pol- 
lution that trees do not thrive. 

Unfortunatelv, the coals which have been so cheap as to greatly 
make for our financial gains, run high in volatile matter and in con- 
sequence make smoke which is especially harmful to vegetation. 

Trees and grass grow imperfectly in the vicinity of smoke-producing 
factories and railroads. Especially is this true of plants with shaggy 
leaves. Members of the pine and fir famUies will not grow, nether 
will evergreens. Superintendent Foster writes ne that they have 
never succeeded in getting trees to five in Giant Park. This they 
attribute to the niinois Central smoke. 

The citizens of Chicago have sx)ent large sums of money in a general 
park scheme of which foliage in Grant Park is a constituent part. This, 
however, is less important than the health necessity of trees for the thick 
populations adjacent to this park. 

Agar (Journal Royal Sanitary Institute, 1907, Volume 27) says 
that in London shrubs rarely break (or sprout) from below on account 
of the incrustation of smoke. Ri^s' testimony, in the same journal, is 
to the same effect. 

An excellent consideration of the smoke question is to be foimd in 
this journal. Riggs says that many plants can be made to five if they 
are systematically washed. If you will examine the leaves of the trees 
at present in Grant Park, you will see that they are covered with soot 
and tar. 

The use of coke lessens the amount of soot but it may even make 
the sulphur gases more harmful, as they are not easily seen. The dust 
from 20 sq. yards of an exposed glass surface at Kew showed 5% sul- 
phuric acid — 2% sulphur. 

Rideal found that London air in clean, breezy weather contained .015 
grams of sulphurous acid per 100 cu. ft. of air. In fo^y weather it 
rose to . 51 and . 77 grams per 100 cu. ft. of London and ^lanchester 
air. This accumulation of sulphurous and sulphiuic acid poisons plants 
and men to some degree. Ri^s says that a London garden costs twice 
as much as a cotmtry garden because of the cost of washing the plants. 
Soil for the plants should have a lime dressing to absorb the sulphur. 
Rideal has found that whitewashed walls were very serviceable in 
absorbins from the air the sulphur gases contained in the smoke. 

M&: 7 ^ that the greatest harm which is done by the sulphur 
^: -T- is done to metal structures. This, he says, is not in direct 
proportion to the amoimt of sulphur in the air. His explanation is as 



THE HARM OF SMOKE 21 

follows: Sulphurous acid falls on iron and is at once oxidized into 
sulphuric acid. It corrodes the iron and makes ferrous sulphate. 
This then picks up oxygen from the air and makes basic ferric sulphate, 
which in turn picks up iron and makes ferrous sulphate and iron oxide. 
The iron oxide is sloughed as rust and the ferrous sulphate starts a 
new cycle. Thus it is back and forth, picking up iron from the struc- 
ture and oxygen from the air. The sulphur boimding back and forth 
eats up the metal as a bacterium or a ferment would do with an organ- 
ized chemical compound. This is a most interesting scientific explana- 
tion of why metal exposed to smoke which contains sulphur gases melts 
away like cloth which is moth eaten. 

The harm which smoke does to wooden structures acts largely 
through its paint or whitewash. The major consequence is in the 
greater cost of maintaining a pleasing appearance. Whitewashed 
houses will absorb a great deal of SO2 from the air, purifying the latter. 
This forms a gypsum on the surface of the wood and therefore loses its 
value as a whitewash. 

Stone and brick houses are discolored and made dull and dreary by 
smoke. Those building materials formed largely of silicates are not 
otherwise harmed. The softer limestones under the influence of CO2 
and SOo will shale and lose both finish and crushing strength in time. 

The harm done vegetation from smoke proceeds from several 
sources. The pores of the leaves are filled by the particles of insoluble 
carbon. The trees are poisoned by carbon monoxide gas. They are 
also poisoned by this tarry oil. 

Thistleton Dyer says that 6 tons of solid matter consisting of soot 
and tarry matter are deposited every week on every 160 acres in and 
aroimd London. This is about 3,966 pounds per aqre per year. 

In Glasgow this was 2,211 to 2,564 pounds per acre per year. It con- 
sisted of carbon, carbon compoimds, sulphur compounds, organic matter 
not soluble in ether, and ether-soluble hydrocarbons. 

Schafer (Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, July 25, 1907,) says 
that London burns 30,000 tons of coal a day and that this pours 300 tons 
of soot and 100,000 tons of CO2 into the air. That about 3% of coal is 
sulphur and that this is poured into the air as SO2 and speedily becomes 
sulphuric acid. In Glasgow and in Manchester 20 tons of sulphurous 
acid are poured into the air each day. When the pollution of the air by 
sulphuric acid reaches 1 part in 1,000,000 vegetation suffers intensely. 

Cohen says that in Leeds . 5 to 5% of all coal burned goes into the 
air as soot and 15% of this soot is a sticky mineral oil. This oil is 



22 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

destructive to vegetation and also dirties clothes and may be a factor 
in ruining them. 

In addition to this tarry matter, smoke is rich in sulphur gases. 
Cohen and Hefford say that of 100 lbs. of sulphur in coal 71.78 lbs. 
will go off as sulphur gases; 14.51 lbs. will be absorbed into the soot 
and escape with it; 13.71 lbs. will remain in the ash. In London each 
day the smoke carries off sulphur from coal 981,792 lbs.; sulphur from 
gas 893 lbs. ; sulphur from mineral oils 743 lbs. 

A large item of cost from the smoke evil is the increased expense of 
lighting. The St. James Gazette, Oct. 14, 1903, said that smoke cost 
London $35,000 a day for extra Ught. 

Probably more important still is the effect of smoke on health. 
Jacobi does not agree with the editorials in the Jo\u*nal American 
Medical Association, May 20, 1905, July 6, 1906, and August 4, 1906. 
He says that we should drop the idea that the smoke question is only 
social and not medical. 

It is, however, difficult to trace disease to air pollution with enough 
of certainty to secure more than a Scotch verdict of '^ guilty but not 
proven." 

Says a writer in the Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute, 1907 : 
" During the winter of fog of '79-' 80, the deaths were several thousand 
above normal. During the lOO-hom* fogs the London deaths were 1,442 
above normal." 

According to the reports of the U. S. Department of Commerce 
and Labor the mortality from pneimaonia is 50% higher in the dirtier- 
aired cities as compared with the country. Archer f ^ that if two 
animals were infected with tuberculosis and one was ^ ven good air 
and another smoky air, the animal breathing smoky air would die more 
quickly than the other. If two animals were taken; one was allowed 
to breathe good air and the second was allowed air containing a small 
quantity of smoke — if, now, both animals breathed aspergillus spores, 
the one which had inhaled smoke would get pneumonia, the other would 
not. 

In the Philadelphia symposiimi, the only remedy offered for a con- 
dition recognized as needing remedy was that of Leffman who advised 
anthracite and coke within the city limits. 

May not the increased death rate of the winter months as com- 
pared with the summer be due to the better ventilation and greater air 
dilution of the summer? In Chicago during January, February, March, 
April, May, and December of 1907, 18,008 people died as compared with 
14,135 for the remaining months. 



THE HARM OF SMOKE 



23 



TWELVE CHIEF CAUSES OF DEATH IN CHICAGO 

Shown in order of highest rates by decades. Deaths per 10,000 population 
in each decade, 1875-1907. 



First Decade 
1878-1887 



Second Decade 
1888-1897 



Third Decade 
1898-1907 



DIARRHEAL DISEASES 

26.S/ 



\ / T- 

) { DIARRHEAL Dl! 

/ \ 23.76 



~/ \ 

'NEUMONI/i y 

20.12 / 



NERVOUS DISEASES 

ZS42 



>/ NERVOU 



2 

S DISEASES 

zaso 



CONSUMPTION 

1544 



/ '' \ / 

< CONSUMPTION y C 



CONSUMPTION 
I7.Z0 



DIARRHEAL DISEASES 
13.02 



4- 

DIPHTHERIA 
1736 



5 

PNEUMONIA 

11.86 



6 

VIOLENCE 
969 




4 

PNEUMONIA 

I6S2 



6 

VIOLENCE 

1199 



DIPHTHERIA 
1/58 



HEART DISEASE 

10.68 



6 

VIOLENCE 

lO.GI 



) 



NERVOUS DISE 

10.29 



E) 



BRONCHITIS 

8.02 



BRONCHITIS 

972 



BRICHT'S DISEASE 

820 



/ ^ \ / ~~ 

i HEAR-^ -^ y ( HEAR 



T DISEASE 

641 



8 

CANCER 

S84 



/ '" \ / 

< TYPHOID FEVER ^ i 

\ 6.09 / \. 



TYPHOID FEVER 

S.95 



BRONCHITIS 

607 



10 

SCARLET FEVER 



II 

CANCER 

380 



i 



12 

BRICHT'S DISEASE 
3,43 




10 

BRICHT'S DISEASE 

6.13 



II 

CANCER 
^.G8 



10 

DIPHTHERIA 
3.40 



TYPHOID FEVER 

2.€4 



LET FEVER ) C SCARLET FEVER y 

191 / \ I70 / 



24 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

There has been a progressive decrease in the death rate in the last 
fifty years. As the chart shows, the Chicago rate has fallen from 27 . 56 
per thousand in 1857 to 14.18 in 1906 and 15.25 in 1907. Better 
drainage has wholly eliminated malaria and cholera and has contrib- 
uted to the material decrease in typhoid fever and the practical elim- 
ination of dysentery. 

Better water has reduced typhoid fever from 17.28 per 10,000 (the 
maximum in 1891) to 1 . 78 in 1907. Better food has eliminated diar- 
rhcBal disease in adults. Better control has reduced smallpox from a 
maximum of 23.04 in 1882 to during the current year. Diarrhix'a in 
babies has come down from 64.84 m 1857 to 13.26 in 1906 and 13.31 
in 1907. Infant mortality from 100.4 in 1868 to 29.8 in 1906. Diph- 
theria, scarlet fever, measles, whooping cough, smallpox, typhoid fever, 
and erysipelas from 45.19 in 1851 to 26.07 in 1888; to 10.165 in 1907. 
As we run down the records of vital statistics we come to expect that 
everywhere in preventable disease improvement will be found. This 
expectation is not fulfilled. During the same period there has been but 
little recognition of the relation of bad air to disease. 

Pneumonia, bronchitis and consumption, forming the group of bad- 
air diseases, are not improving. They exact a heavier toll year by 
year. Reference to the charts and tables shows such items as a death 
rate from these diseases of 31.71 in the decade 1858 to 1867, and 40.63 
in that from 1898 to 1907. The general death rate iii 1858-67 was 23.54; 
in 1898 to 1907, 145.6. 

We have spent millions to raise the city level and bring about drain- 
age and eliminate swamps. We have purified our water. We do not 
suffer our soil to be polluted by manure or other excretions. W^e force 
a standard of foods on farmers, butchers, and all food-producers. 
These exactions have borne fruit. Why is it that we allow the air, 
so much more important than any of these, to be polluted without let or 
hindrance? Do not these figures prove a health necessity for control 
of air? 

It is difficult for 300 men to live on an acre in peace and health. 
To do it they need vegetation and sunlight. They pay for the privi- 
lege of living crowded. They pay in restrictions on water, on sewage, 
on waste. They pay with the sacrifice of their liberties and rights. 
Shall not others pay? 

Says Reed: '' Then, too, there is something to be said about the ethics 
of the air. Air is necessary to existence. This being true, to breathe pure 
air must be reckoned among man's inalienable rights. No man has any 



THE HARM OF SMOKE 



25 



DIAGRAM SHOWING DEATH RATES 

From all causes and the impure air diseases during the last thirty years, 
1878-1907. Deaths per 1,000 population by years. All causes, upper 
line; impure air diseases, lower Une. 





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26 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

more right to contaminate the air we breathe than he has to defile the 
water we drink. No man has any more moral right to throw soot into 
our parlors than he has to dump ashes into our bedrooms. No man 
has any more right to vitiate the air that sustains us than he has to adul- 
terate the food that nourishes us. Poison taken into the body through 
the lungs is just as much a poison as is some other poison swallowed 
into the stomach. Poisonous air is probably more disastrous to infants 
than is adulterated milk. A man's proprietorship extends as distinctly 
into the air above him as into the earth beneath him. If every man 
is entitled to the ground he stands upon, so is he entitled to the air that 
envelops him. " 

If the people have spent their money by hundreds of millions by tax- 
ation for canals and sewers and have spent other millions to raise the 
city above datum in order that they might be healthy; if the statistics 
prove that these expenditures have returned lives, health and earning 
power enough to justify them; if the figures show that air pollution is 
now doing more harm than any other agency of economic waste, have 
they not the right to ask that those who pollute the air spend some money 
to prevent that pollution? 

This postulate can be maintained. Government must keep pure 
air and water and all other things used in common by the people, and 
to this end they have all needed powers. 

Not all of the lung and throat disease is due to dirt in the air. 
Not all of the dirt is due to smoke. Not all the smoke is due to 
locomotive engines. But engines are large contributors to a large 
factor in the three most important diseases in the world, consumption, 
pneumonia, and bronchitis. 

It is true that the railroads contribute to the growth of cities and 
above all to that of our city, and we should therefore be tolerant 
of them. 

It is also true that they get a large part of their support from the acre- 
age concentration of the people. That very concentration, in the last 
analysis, is responsible for a large part of their business. Whatever is 
done by railroads or others to make cities impossible or undesirable 
will work to the ultimate harm of the railroads. Were the air so laden 
with smoke that people would scatter out to ten to the acre, the rail- 
roads in common with all other industry would suffer greatly. 

Therefore it can be assumed that the railroads of broader view will 
act as extra-governmental aids in the preservation of the air supply. 



THE HARM OF SMOKE 



27 



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THE PEEYENTION OF SMOKE IN CHICAGO 

PAUL P. BIRD 

Chicago has grown up during the last half-century to meet the 
demands of trade and commerce. As a city it has been hurriedly 
put together after no very well thought-out plan or scheme. To-day, 
from a number of different angles, the citizens are endeavoring to 
make Chicago a better city to Hve in, a cleaner, and, physically, a more 
attractive one. 

It is admitted by every one that the smoke nuisance in Chicago is 
one of its most serious handicaps. In fact, the abatement of this 
smoke nuisance is a necessary pre-requisite to the permanent success 
of these many organized movements for civic betterment. 

The prevalence of such quantities of smoke in the atmosphere of 
Chicago is due to the almost universal use of soft coal from the adjacent 
Illinois and Indiana coal fields. Among the other splendid advantages 
due to Chicago's location that has helped to make her the commercial 
center of the Middle West and the manufacturing center of the world, 
is the fact that these immense coal fields He at her very door. Here 
is foimd an excellent grade of bituminous coal, one of the best steam- 
making coals known, but which, imfortunately, when not burned imder 
proper conditions, is a great smoke producer. 

There is no question but that the power and heat used in Chicago 
must always come from this local soft coal. It would be an economic 
blunder to try to do anything else. The anthracite coal fields of Penn- 
sylvania are so far away that the freight rates make hard coal prohib- 
itive for general uses, and, moreover, authorities claim that the supply 
of anthracite, at its present rate of consumption, Tvdll be completely 
exhausted within sixty or eighty years. Therefore, the problem that 
the citizens of Chicago have before them is, not to abate the smoke- 
nuisance by burning anthracite or even semi-bituminous coal, but 
to bm-n these local coals in such a manner that there will be complete 
and smokeless combustion. 

For years there has been a smoke ordinance in Chicago. It has 

been left to the present city administration, however, to reahze the 

importance to Chicago of smoke suppression and take up the question 

with vigor and inteUigence. 

28 



THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE IN CHICAGO 29 

With the advice and aid of a commission of eight business men, the 
Mayor has organized the bureau into one of the principal departments 
of the city's government. Its head and his assistants are mechanical 
engineers, and the crusade has been begun in a business-like and 
scientific manner. 

The smoke of Chicago divides itself into three general classes : The 
smoke from stationary power-plants, whether in buildings, factories, or 
power-houses; smoke from locomotives; and smoke from tugs and 
vessels. Each constitutes a problem by itself. 

The abatement of smoke from stationary plants, even when burning 
the cheapest of local coals is both possible and practicable. It is admit- 
ted by all scientists to be theoretically possible, if burned in a proper 
installation of boilers and furnaces operated with the requisite care. 
That such conditions are practical under commercial conditions is 
proven by the hundreds of plants in Chicago that are already operat- 
ing without making objectionable smoke. It is an encouraging fact 
that a smokeless plant is always an economical one, and that, from 
the standpoint of the coal bill, it pays to have a clean and smokeless 
chimney. 

There are over 11,000 stationary power-plants in Chicago. The 
majority of them have been installed without any adequate provision 
for smoke prevention, and, until recently, operated without attention 
or care. Under the present law, the plans for all new plants must be 
submitted to the Smoke Department before work is begun, and the 
Department compels the builder to make the very best provision for 
the prevention of smoke. As the old plants wear out and would be 
replaced by new and proper ones, the smoke from stationary plants 
would thus be gradually eliminated. The ordinance, however, contem- 
plates a more immediate remedy, and provides punishment by fines 
for plant-ow^ners who will not take immediate steps to stop the emis- 
sion of smoke from their chimneys. In practice, the Department 
offers to co-operate with such offenders in discovering what are the 
causes of smoke in that particular plant. If the plant-owner acts in 
a spirit of co-operation and promises to take immediate steps to remedy 
the defect, he is allowed a reasonable time to do so. If, however, he 
opposes the suggestions and fails to promptly co-operate with the De- 
partment he is sued in court, and continually sued until, under the 
stress of accumulating fines, he takes the necessary measures to clean 
up his stack. 

During the first year of the operation of the reorganized depart- 



30 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

ment, which has just ended, more than five hundred \dolatmg plants 
have been taken up by the Department and brought to a satisfactory 
condition of cleanliness. These results have probably not been noticed 
by the ordinary citizen who is not particularly interested, but the results 
are being accomphshed, and at the end of this first year it is certain that 
a considerable improvement has already been accompUshed. Each year 
the improvement will be more rapid and more noticeable, and the final 
abatement of smoke from stationary plants is simply a matter of time, 
the efficiency of the Department, and the resources at its command. 

The smoke from tugs and vessels is now under special consideration 
by the Department. The complaint of President Harahan of the 
lUinois Central RaUroad that great quantities of smoke come from 
the river and harbor is weU founded. While the number of tugs and 
other vessels is comparatively few when compared with the stationary 
plants or locomotives, and burn a very small proportion of the total 
amount of coal consimaed in Chicago, they make proportionately a 
far greater amoimt of smoke, and this smoke is a great nuisance, both 
on account of its density and the fact that it comes out of the stacks 
so near the level of the bridges and adjacent buildings. 

The tug problem is different on account of the necessary high power 
of the engines, the limited space for boilers and furnaces, the laxity of 
former administrations toward the tug and vessel owners, and the fact 
that this branch of smoke prevention has not received the amount of 
scientific study as has the stationary plant. 

The shipping season of 1908 was opened before the Department 
was organized to give the matter proper attention, and it was obvious 
that any changes of equipment would have to be made during the 
winter lay-up. A special deputy inspector has been assigned to study 
the problem during the entire summer, and during the winter plans 
wiU be developed to carry on an aggressive campaign with the opening 
of navigation next spring. 

In the railroads the department has an entirely distinct problem. 
The many limitations in size and weight, and the unusual requirements 
of a locomotive prohibit the use of many arrangements and devices 
which bring about smokeless combustion in stationary plants. In a 
modern high-powered locomotive an enormous amount of coal is con- 
sumed and an enormous amount of steam generated per hour and amid 
very difficult conditions. 

The first of these conditions is the construction of the fire-box of a 
locomotive. This, in itself, makes it difficult to operate without making 



THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE IN CHICAGO 31 

smoke. The gases from the bmriing coal upon leaving the grate come 
in contact almost immediately with the metal of which the fire-box is 
composed. This metal is at a temperature of several hundred degrees 
lower than that of the burning gases, and they are cooled before an 
opportunity is given them to be entirely consumed. The combustion 
is only partial and the result of incomplete combustion is always smoke. 

The fireman handling his fire must exercise greater care and skill 
than is needed with a fire in a fire-brick enclosed furnace where the 
gases are not subject to the cooling effect that they are in a locomotive. 
In fact, he must overcome to a certain degree by this care and skill, the 
effect of the cooling surfaces which are readily taken care of in a furnace 
or fire-box that can be properly designed. 

The variable-load factor is another condition which confronts the 
fireman on a locomotive. At one instant a locomotive boiler may be 
generating steam to its fullest capacity and the fire in a condition to 
furnish heat to generate this steam, and at the next instant the demand 
for steam upon the boiler be reduced to practically nothing. It is 
impossible to control the fire to meet this condition and the result is 
generally considerable smoke. 

Locomotives in service are sometimes required to run for 10 or 15 
hornrs before an opportunity to clean fires is obtained. Probably a 
large per cent of this time the fireman is trying to operate his fire to 
meet the demands of steam in the boiler. This task is a very diflScult 
one since a locomotive grate is none too large when the fire is in good 
condition to furnish heat enough to operate the boiler to its fuUest 
capacity. 

There are other minor conditions which make it difficult to operate 
a locomotive without smoke, such as accidents, break-downs, leaks in 
the fire-box due many times to poor water, and the like. All of these 
tend to increase the difl&culties of operating steam locomotives without 
smoke. 

Moreover the draft is obtained by exhausting the steam from the 
engines through the stack which is only a few inches in height, and the 
smoke, no matter how light it is, is discharged so near the ground level 
that it forms a decided nuisance to everyone. 

The experience with the railroads during the year has been briefly 
as follows: At the start the whole matter was discussed with the 
presidents of the various roads entering Chicago, by the Smoke Abate- 
ment Commission, and the roads promised their co-operation and help 
toward reducing to a minimum the smoke caused by their locomotives. 



32 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Special deputy smoke inspectors, mechanical engineers with railroad 
experience, have been assigned to the railroad problem. The railroads 
have given the city department splendid co-operation, and a wonderful 
improvement has been made. This improvement is not so noticeable 
to the ordinary citizen who is not watching it particularly, but to the 
railroad operatives and to the city smoke inspectors the change has 
been marked. 

Of all the railroads entering Chicago there are now three that are 
doing particularly well, and on these roads it is believed that the per- 
formance of steam locomotives is nearly as free from the smoke nuisance 
as is practicable. In the future there may be times when they will do 
better, and also there may be times when they will not do as well, but, 
on the whole, we have reached about as high a degree of cleanliness as 
is practical with steam locomotives using soft coal. However, on 
these roads, we still have the smoke nuisance, and it is a real nuisance. 
These locomotives are operating within the requirements of the present 
smoke ordinance as regards the emission of dense smoke, but still the 
rain of cinders and the sprinkling of dirt continues. 

As stated above, the large users of steam in Chicago must use Illinois 
soft coal, and we may always expect steam locomotives in this district 
to use this fuel, and, as the other smoke conditions in Chicago continue 
to improve, this smoke from locomotives, even under the most careful 
operation, will become a much more evident nuisance. 

Concerning the railroad smoke, the Department has reached this 
conclusion : The eventual and final solution of the smoke and dirt nuisance 
on the railroads lies in the use of some form of motive power other than 
the steam locomotive. Electrification offers the best and most promising 
solution of the problem. With a railroad terminal operating electrically, 
the power still comes from Illinois coal, as this fuel would be used in 
the power-houses where the electricity would be generated, but the 
coal could then be burned without smoke. 

The present policy of the city Department of Smoke Inspection, as 
far as railroad smoke is concerned, is to keep the roads to the highest 
possible standard of cleanliness while using their steam locomotives 
and to aid and encourage, in all possible ways, the adoption of electricity. 



THE RAILROADS AS SMOKE PRODUCERS 

G. E. RYDER 

To say that the railroads of Chicago do not smoke would be a well- 
recognized untruth! It would be as great a misrepresentation to say 
that the greater part of the smoke in Chicago comes from the railroads. 
The railroads in Chicago are not responsible for as much smoke in pro- 
portion to the amount of fuel they burn as are other consumers of coal. 
The steam craft on the river and in the Chicago Harbor, on the other 
hand, are responsible for a percentage of smoke many times the per- 
centage of coal they burn referred to all the coal burned in Chicago. 
It is a conservative estimate to say that the railroads burn inside the 
city limits of Chicago 15% of all the coal that is burned in Chicago. 
And it is also a conservative estimate to say that the smoke from the 
railroads in Chicago constitutes less than 10% of the total smoke in the 
Chicago atmosphere. 

When considered from the standpoint of a public nuisance the 
smoke, together with the noise, dirt, and cinders made by steam loco- 
motives both in round-houses and on the road, stand at the head of the 
list. This nuisance is more objectionable than the smoke from all the 
rest of the coal burned in Chicago. 

Manufacturing plants which use coal for fuel are generally located 
in a district where smoke is not so objectionable as it is in residence 
districts. The immediate surroundings are factories. They are not of 
a character to be greatly damaged by smoke and dirt. Fires built in 
the furnaces of these plants continue to burn for several days, thus 
doing away with the smoke caused by building new fires. The condi- 
tions of a large stationary plant can be controlled. When the remedy 
is applied for imperfect conditions the cure is permanent. The personal 
element is a small factor in these plants. 

The railroads on the other hand, traverse resident districts where 
the smoke made, though it be less than made in other localities, is more 
of a nuisance. The damage to property is greater because the property 
to be damaged is more valuable and more susceptible to damage by 
smoke and cinders. 

The personal element in the operation of steam locomotives con- 
stitutes the principal means of preventing smoke. This means cannot 

33 



34 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

be relied upon to any extent for permanent results. The principal 
reason for this is that the men who make up the element are contin- 
ually being changed. 

The round-houses are among the worst offenders. Many of these 
are located near the residence districts of Chicago. In the average-sized 
round-house seventy-five to a hundred locomotives are handled daily. 
The handling of these locomotives includes cleaning or building new 
fires in each one. This operation is recognized as a necessarily smoky 
one, even by the city smoke ordinance, inasmuch as it provides a period 
of six minutes during which time smoke is permitted to be emitted 
while the fire is being cleaned or a new fire built. 

The adoption of electricity for a means of moving trains within the 
city will necessarily do away with this objectionable feature of smoke 
produced by the railroads. 



THE POSSIBILITY OF SMOKELESS STEAM LOCO- 
MOTIVE TRACTION 

G. E. RYDER 

It is entirely possible to operate steam locomotives without smoke 
and at the same time use bituminous coal for fuel. The conditions 
which make it possible to accomplish this must be favorable almost 
to perfection. The design of the locomotive, its boiler and fire-box, 
must be such that the laws of combustion will not be violated when coal 
is burned on the grates. If the engine is over-cylinder ed it will require 
an over-crowding of the capacity of the boiler and therefore over-load- 
ing the grate. This means an uneconomical use of coal both from a 
financial standpoint and from the standpoint of fuel economy. The 
result of incomplete combustion is always smoke. 

The same is true of an engine that is loaded to or nearly to its capac- 
ity. The coal is only partly consumed because it is necessary to burn 
it at so high a rate and the result is smoke. It is very difficult to over- 
come this feature since it is economical practice for railroads to haul 
as large loads as possible with each unit of power. 

Every locomotive that is put into service not only increases the 
operating cost, an amount equal to the value of the locomotive, but the 
cost of an engine crew and train crew. It is the practice of railroad 
companies, therefore, to do the greatest amount of work with the fewest 
number of locomotives. 

In order to operate smokelessly the fire-box must be of a design to 
accommodate the proper burning of coal and must be equipped with a 
brick arch. The fire-box must be of sufficient depth to allow the gases 
time to be completely consumed before passing into the tubes of the 
boiler. 

The locomotive must be equipped with a blower of considerable 
strength to furnish draft enough to burn the coal when the engine is 
not working steam. The boiler and fire-box must be kept in perfect 
repair to accomphsh smokeless results. No leaky flues, stay bolts, or 
steam pipes can be allowed. 

With this equipment it is necessary that good coal be used. This 

the railroads will not do for economical, diplomatic, and political reasons. 

When all has been done and said with respect to equipment, mainte- 

35 



36 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

nance and coal, there remains the most unportant element in securing 
smokeless operation of the steam locomotive. This is the personal 
element — the engineer and firemen who are actually doing the work. 
They are human, and inasmuch as they are human, they become care- 
less in their work and every example of this carelessness causes smoke. 
The firemen are continually being changed either by promotion or by 
discharge for failure to fill their positions. 

On accoimt of these continued changes the railroad companies are 
necessarily put to considerable expense to educate the new men and 
watch the old ones who show a tendency toward carelessness, if they 
desire to operate without unreasonable amoimts of smoke. A major- 
ity of railroads in Chicago have men whose duty it is to look after the 
smoke, educating the green firemen and disciplining the careless ones. 
Some of these men have no other duties, while others look after this 
work along with other work. One railroad in Chicago has five of these 
men whose titles are ''smoke inspectors," thus increasing its expense 
$800.00 or $900.00 a month for the prevention of smoke. Other roads 
have a less number and some have only one, as the demand requires. 

While it is entirely possible to operate one locomotive or a thousand 
without making smoke, it is not economical to do so. There are ex- 
penses chargeable to equipment, maintenance, and superintendence 
which exist only on account of endeavor to prevent smoke. These 
expenses, as well as many others mentioned in this report, would not 
occur if trains were operated by some other means than direct steam 
operation. 

There have been many so-called smoke devices for locomotives put 
on the market, proving either partial or total failures in ahnost as many 
cases. Description and history of these devices would be beyond the 
scope of this report. They are along the lines of specially designed 
arches, blowers, and means of admitting air over the fire. In each case 
these devices have tended to better conditions but have not given entire 
satisfaction to any universal extent. These devices had their birth 
and have met with some success in the engines which they were first 
designed for. The reason of their success in these instances was prob- 
ably due to the fact that they were the proper remedy for conditions 
already good. When they have been tried to any imiversal extent 
they have proved inefficient. 

There are two methods left for smokeless steam locomotive opera- 
tion which are absolutely certain, i e., the adoption of anthracite coal 
or coke. Either of these fuels is absolutely smokeless in as far as 



SMOKELESS STEAM LOCOMOTIVE TRACTION 37 

visible smoke is concerned. There are, however, gases which arise 
from these fuels which are probably as destructive to vegetation and as 
detrimental to the public health as the visible smoke and invisible gases 
which are evolved from bituminous coals. 

The use of these fuels eliminates the personal element in the opera- 
tion of locomotives, as far as smoke prevention goes, to a minimum. 
The cost of these fuels is almost prohibitive to their use. The bitumin- 
ous coals used by railroads in Chicago range between $1.00 and $2.00 
per ton. Anthracite would cost at the present market about $5.50 per 
ton. Considering bituminous coal at $2.00 per ton, the adoption of 
anthracite coal would mean an increase in cost of 125%. The increased 
efficiency of anthracite coal is only about 10% over bitimainous, which 
would make an increase of 115% in the cost of fuel. If coke were used 
the increase in cost would be approximately 75%. 

If anthracite coal were adopted by the railroads for fuel in Chicago, 
it would reduce the market for coal from Illinois coal fields several 
hundred thousand tons per year, and it is not poUcy, even if the price 
were not prohibitive, to solve the smoke problem in Chicago by the 
substitution of a foreign fuel. It must be done and still use Illinois 
coal. 

Further, if it were policy and it were possible to eliminate the visible 
smoke by the use of anthracite coal or coke, there would still remain the 
invisible gases, together with the noise and cinders of the steam loco- 
motive. The noise is only unpleasant to our ears but the cinders are 
both destructive to clothing, houses, and vegetation in general, as well 
as injurious to the people who come in contact with them. 

The solution, therefore, for these difficulties, is some means of power 
for the moving of trains in Chicago which will not necessitate the burn- 
ing of fuel as it is burned at present on each unit, but that it be burned 
at some one place where all the conditions can be controlled and the 
power generated delivered to the unit in a form to be converted into 
work immediately. 

The most feasible means of accomplishing this at the present time 
seems to be electrification. The adoption of this means of locomotion 
has met with success wherever tried, either in street railway, interur- 
ban, or trunk line service, both in this coimtry and in foreign countries. 
Lines are now being operated successfully in New York City and there 
is no reason why the railroads of Chicago should not adopt this system. 
Of these railroads the Illinois Central is at the present time in the most 
favorable circumstances for its adoption. 



ANTHRACITE COAL AND COKE AS REMEDIES! 



PAUL P. BIRD f ^5 



Without considering any of the mechanical difficulties that might 
be encountered in using either anthracite or coke as fuel in the present 
steam locomotives, it would be a very expensive thing to do. 

Considering only the cost of these fuels in Chicago and their heat 
values, it is estimated that the fuel bill of a railroad terminal using an- 
thracite coal would be two and a half times larger than, and using coke 
twice as large, as with Illinois coal. 

It is thus seen that the cost of these fuels would discourage their 
use. Also, we want to, if possible, use our local coals and not make 
another state riche r by bu ying its product when we have one at home 
that can be made use of. 

The only coke available for use by the Chicago railroads is made from 
Eastern coals. The local coals have still resisted all attempts to suc- 
cessfully coke them. 

Further, it is doubtful that coke would prove a satisfactory fuel 
for a modern high-powered locomotive, due to its light weight, as the 
strong draft might carry the smaller pieces out of the stack before they 
had time to burn. 

A number of the eastern railroads in the anthracite region use hard 
coal successfully, so we are sure that no difficulty would arise from its 
use here, other than the cost. 

The cost of hard coal is increasing rapidly from year to year, due to 
the exhaustion of the supply. Scientists estimate that the supply will 
be completely gone within sixty or seventy years. 

The use of either of these fuels would undoubtedly do away with the 
railroad smoke, but the cinders would remain as well as the other nui- 
sances due to the use of steam, such as the noisy escape of steam from 
the safety valves while the engines are standing still. 

In general, it would not be advisable to use coke or anthracite coal 
when electrification offers such pronounced advantages from all view- 
points. 



38 



\ 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 

H. H. EVANS 

Public attention in large cities, and particularly in Chicago, is largely 
held by two subjects — increased cleanliness of the city at large and 
better transit facilities. The first of these is essential to the welfare 
of its citizens, the second is vital to a city's growth. There is little need 
of harping upon the advantages to accrue from better transportation fa- 
cilities. A realization of what they are comes to each citizen of Chicago 
by virtue of his living in a community which has had the most marvelous 
growth ever known, largely because of the unequaled railroad connec- 
tions which the energy of its citizens has been able to attract. But the 
energy of its citizens has not stopped with securing better railroad facil- 
ities with other cities; they are seeking, as well, better facilities between 
the city and its suburbs and within the city itself. It will facilitate 
business, make more comfortable the life of a good many citizens, and 
knit the city into a imity. Altogether, it is an end greatly to be desired. 
And the other is equally important. Cleanliness in Chicago is attrac- 
tive ethically, but vastly more so economically. Dirt costs money — a 
great deal of it. Almost every citizen pays toll to the smoke nuisance 
in increased living expenses in some form or other. Merchants and 
manufacturers pay it in tangible form. No one denies that to get rid 
of it would be desirable. While the railroads consume but 13% of the 
coal burned in Chicago, it is generally observed that they contribute 
most to the public's suffering. This is because locomotive construction 
and working does not admit of smoke consumption, because the rail- 
road locations in Chicago are such as to distribute the smoke where it is 
particularly obnoxious, and because the traveling public has to place 
itself on its journeys directly in the path of trailing smoke. 

The interest of the public being so large in these matters, the public 

has cast about to see what will further its aim. Electrification of the 

railroads has presented itself as the most efficient means. This has not 

been a sudden conviction upon its part, but has been forced upon the 

public by experience. A number of years ago almost every city had 

somewhere about it a steam dummy line heralded as an expeditious 

and attractive means of transit. Some cities had them along most 

of their principal streets. Electric trolley roads made their appearance 

39 



40 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

with their fuU share of discouragements. Added to the difficulties which 
must invariably be overcome with new apparatus, their projectors were 
met with predictions that the system would not work, that it would not 
be rehable, that it could never pay interest charges upon the huge in- 
vestment involved, and the current catchword was the ' 'deadly trolley." 
Tried out, the pubhc found electric street railways safe, cleanly, com- 
fortable, expeditious, and economical. The steam dummy line has 
become a curiosity. 

A few years ago we had steam trains upon the elevated railways. 
The convenience of these roads was such that the pubhc soon taxed 
their resources. It became necessary to adopt some change in system 
which would admit of a greater traffic movement over their tracks. 
This showed itself earher in New York than in Chicago, and as early as 
1885 the Manhattan Elevated made electrification experiments upon 
a portion of its tracks. It was, however, reserved to Chicago, with 
its practical demonstration of the Intramural Road at the World's Fair 
and the subsequent electrification of the elevated railroads, to demon- 
strate the adequacy of electrification. Now, in its essentials, the prob- 
lem presented by the electrification of the elevated railroads is pretty 
much that of the best-developed suburban services of the standard rail- 
roads. Take the cases of the Illinois Central local suburban service to 
Sixty-third Street, and that of the Alley Elevated at the time of its 
electrification (work begun 1897, service put on April 23, 1898). For 
the local suburban service the Illinois Central kept two tracks distinct 
from its other service. Both were double-track roads mth one track 
reserved for north-boimd and one for south-bound traffic. Neither had 
any crossings over its right of way. Stations in each case were one-half 
mile apart; the passengers in both cases were unloaded and loaded 
onto and from platforms at the same height as the car floor. The loco- 
motives used were of the same characteristics — that is, the elevated 
locomotive and the Illinois Central suburban locomotive were more 
nearly alike than the suburban locomotive is like the standard passenger 
locomotive. Approximately the same character and weight of trains 
were handled. The elevated, of course, ran more trains than the Illi- 
nois Central, because of its poUcy of handling a larger number of passen- 
gers at a smaller fare. The Illinois Central made somewhat better 
speed at a cost of reduced capacity. The district contiguous to the 
elevated was more sparsely populated in 1897 than now, so it is prob- 
able that at the time the population served by the two roads was sensi- 
bly even. They handled the same class of traffic — a large crowd going 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 41 

to or from work during the rush hours and a shopping crowd in the 
middle of the day. Both streaked smoke through the residence dis- 
trict and converged upon the business district. The pubhc has seen 
electrification work so vast an improvement in the elevated roads that 
it cannot but ask why such an improvement would not be possible 
with the standard steam railroads. The facilities which are now af- 
forded by the South Side Elevated (formerly the Alley El) could not 
be duplicated under steam wor.:ing. Inability to make the speed, 
inability to haul the heavier trains now hauled, inability to be at the 
entrance to the loop on the second, and inability to dodge on and off 
the loop within the few seconds afforded, would all militate against it. 
During the rush hours these cars come onto the loop under a 22-second 
headway and for a brief period in the morning rush hour, on a 12-second 
headway. The Metropolitan does the same. The South Side Ele- 
vated has increased its speed of locals from that of 12 miles per hour 
to 15 miles per hour, including stops. It also hauls 6-car trains instead 
of 4-car ones. Mr. Brinckerhoff stated before the American Street and 
Interurban Railway Association in 1906, that in ten years the passen- 
gers carried rose from 13,587,791 to 32,959,752. Very curiously, 
despite the higher speed (which would argue an increase) the cost of 
working per car mile by electricity was $0,089 against $0,105 by steam 
— a decrease of 16%. And in every case in the United States where 
an elevated railroad has been electrified, there has followed an increase 
in car movement afforded the public, an increase in the passengers car- 
ried (showing its appreciation by the public) and a decrease in the cost 
of operation per car mile. 

Interest has been further drawn to electrification, by the remark- 
able growth of the interurban road. So long as these roads were only 
modified street railways making use of public highways and stopping 
at random, or so long as they went into territory not reached by the 
railroads, they attracted little attention. But soon they began to get 
into the territory of the steam roads and presently there evolved an 
electric railroad connecting the same termini as a portion of a steam 
railroad, running upon its private right of way, with right-of-way con- 
struction equal to the most approved steam-railroad construction, 
equipped with block signals, and stopping at regular stations. Here, 
then, was a new thing. Running heavy cars on a fast schedule, they 
afforded the public a frequent, convenient, rapid, and comfortable 
means of transit. By so doing, they have been able partly to attract 
to themselves, partly develop, a density of traffic which has been suffi- 



42 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

cient (where their projection has been wisely considered) to afford ade- 
quate returns upon the capital invested. This has come, too, from the 
development of local traffic which is popularly supposed not to be 
remunerative. In some cases, such roads have been built into \drgin 
territory where, ten years ago, a steam railroad would have been the 
only one considered. Such roads may extend over himdreds of miles, 
have adequate freight and passenger terminals, and do a through pas- 
senger and carload-freight business. Take, for instance, the Spokane 
and Inland Empire System. This electric road is now operating 194 
miles of railroads with over 300 miles of trackage. It has a terminal 
yard in Spokane 300 feet by 2,000 feet and a terminal freight-house 40 
feet by 300 feet. In addition to its interurban passenger equipment it 
owns 16 electric locomotives, 5 steam locomotives and 530 standard 
freight cars. It does a local street-car business, a suburban and inter- 
urban business, a through passenger busmess, hauls mail and express, 
and electrically hauls freight in trains of twenty to thirty cars. Cer- 
tain features of such roads and of the interurban roads have drawn the 
attention of the pubUc to the possibilities of the electrification of the 
steam roads into Chicago. The argument from the pubHc point of view 
ran somewhat along this line. The local transportation faciUties of 
the steam roads are nowhere near taxed to their capacity; the public 
will not fill up the trains already at their convenience. Therefore it 
follows, first, that steam operation is adequate and, second, that the 
pubHc does not care to travel. The interurbans have shown that there 
is a screw loose in this reasoning and that growth in travel comes fastest 
from travel becoming a convenience and a pleasure, rather than a neces- 
sity. There is really little excuse for the building of these interurban 
railways. Their field should have been occupied by the steam roads. 
These roads in many cases owned sections of track which could have 
been utilized for interurban service by adding the electrical equipment. 
Lately, this has been done on certain sections of the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford and of the West Shore, for instance. In other cases 
such as portions of the Northern Pacific and the Erie, certain unimpor- 
tant lines have been tiu-ned into interurban trolley lines. At the very 
worst, additional tracks for interm-ban service could have been built 
alongside of the existing tracks at a less cost than an entirely new right 
of way could be built by an interm-ban line. That the interurban has 
been able to make better entry into a city would not be insurmountable, 
since certain steam roads, which have electrified interurban sections, 
have arranged to have interurban cars leave the right of way and pass 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 43 

into the center of the town over local street-railway tracks. This has 
been done, among others, by the Delaware & Hudson and the New 
York, New Haven & Hartford railways. When $5,000 a mile would 
have equipped a road for such service, it seems a pity that $30,000 to 
$35,000 a mile was expended in building an entirely new road, and that 
the difference could not have been available for investments which 
would prove of fiu-ther advantage to society. There is a concrete case 
of this right to our doors. It is generally understood that certain rail- 
roads reaching to the westward, made investigations several years ago 
as to the feasibility of electrifying their suburban lines and decided 
adversely on the grounds of expense. That such was the case, the 
writer is not able to say definitely, but it seems very likely since these 
roads experimented at that time with motor vehicles and other devices 
for taking care of this traffic and it is to be expected that they would 
have investigated electrification. The Aurora, Elgin & Chicago went 
into this same territory, the traffic from which ' *' would not pay returns 
upon the electrification" of roads already established, built a high- 
grade road from the ground up and pays 5% upon the investment. 
Whenever such a road has been built the preference of the pubfic for 
the superior service afforded has been manifest. The steam railroads 
have suffered keenly from the competition and have vainly endeavored 
by reduced fares and other devices, to hold their traffic. According 
to an affidavit filed with the Indiana State Tax Board, in 1906, the pas- 
senger traffic of the Clover Leaf railroad dropped off 95% between 
points of interurban competition. Ray Morris, in the Atlantic Monthly 
(June, 1904) gave the following figures to show the falling off in 
passenger traffic between such points, despite a cut in fares by the 
steam roads: 

L. S. & M. S. — Between Cleveland and Oberlin — 34 Miles 
Year West East Total Per Month 

1895 104,426 98,588 203,014 16,918 

1902 46,328 45,433 91,761 7,647 

L. S. & M. S. — Between Cleveland and Painesville — 29 Miles 

1895 97,460 101,832 199,292 16,608 

1902 13,106 15,602 28,708 2,392 

N. Y. C. & St. L. — Between Cleveland and Lorain 
Year Total Passengers Revenue Average Revenue 

1895 42,526 $25,523 $0.60 

1902 9,795 4,379 0.44 



44 ELZCTPJFICATIOX OF R,\ILWAY TERfflNALS 

A further commentary upon the preference of the pubhc for electric 
traction is f oimd in the history of our transportation facihties in Chicago. 
In the last five years the growth of the suburban steam-railway traffic 
has been small and the roads patronized only through necessity, while 
the elevated roads cannot keep their facilities abreast of the demands 
of traffic. Lastly, the preference of the pubUc for electric traction may 
be shown by the experience of steam roads which have been electrified. 
On the earher electrifications on the New York, New Haven & Hart- 
ford (in a paper published in the Street Railway Journal, Sept. 8, 1900) 
Heft gives the following figures for passengers carried: 

Steam Electric 

Nantasket Beach 304,292 702,419 

Highland Div 387.695 1,060,617 

Berlin Branch 267.936 241,207 

New Canaan Branch 98,302 184,728 

On the electrified West Jersey and Seashore railroad, belonging to 
the Pennsylvania railroad, and running between Camden and Atlantic 
City, the strictly local traffic for the year ending August 31, 1907 (the 
first year of its electrification) showed an increase of 19.54% over the pre- 
ceding year of steam operation, while the increase, in turn, of the last 
year of steam operation over the preceding one, was only 1.85%. 

On the Mersey railroad out of Liverpool for a 6-months period, the 
passengers under electrification were 4,500,000 against 3,200,000 tmder 
6 months of steam operation. 

On the North Eastern out of Newcastle for 6-months periods, the 
passengers were 3,548,000 under electric working against 2,844,000 
under steam. 

On the Lancashire and Yorkshire, out of Liverpool, the traffic under 
electrification increased by considerably over 100,000 passengers per 
month. 

On the ^lilan-Gallarate-Porto Ceresio line in Italy, early reports 
showed yearly passenger receipts of 993,150 lire under electric working 
against 663.000 lire for steam, and this, despite a reduction in fares 
subsequent to electrification. 

With these lessons of the past in mind, and the smoke being intol- 
erable, electrification of the steam railroads in Chicago has become a 
question of interest to every citizen. An index of the interest is afforded 
by the persistent clamor of the daily press. This clamor is more to be 
heeded since the press has been kept in ignorance that this investigation 
was being conducted. Not only the press, but the representative busi- 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 45 

ness organizations have taken a hand in asking if electrification could not 
be applied to railroad terminals in Chicago. Thus the Hamilton Club, 
last April, addressed letters to various officials of the railways entering 
Chicago, asking an expression of opinion regarding the electrification 
of these roads. Varying replies were received. 

J. T. Harahan, president of the Illinois Central Railroad Company, 
wrote Mr. Morris as follows: 

' ^ With regard to the substitution of electric power for steam on 
locomotives, I would say that it is a large question and one which can- 
not be answered offhand. The electrification of steam railroads as 
far as pertains to the handling of business outside of cities is a simple 
question, but when it comes to the electrification of large terminals 
like those of the railways of Chicago it is an entirely different question. 

^ ' The experience in the electrification of the New York Central ter- 
minals in New York City has developed many difficulties, one of the 
greatest of which is a financial one. It is apparent to any business man 
that he cannot afford to make a large initial outlay unless such outlay 
is compensated by a reduction in the cost of operation. The exact con- 
trary has been the experience with reference to the New York Central 
terminals in New York City. 

' ' The art of electrification of steam railroads is yet in its infancy, and 
the experience has not been sufficient to demonstrate the most econom- 
ical type. There is no question, however, that with the advancement 
of the art the future will see a large development in the electrification of 
existing steam roads. It is not possible, however, in any business, to 
set aside the present plant in which there is a large investment, and make 
a further large initial expenditure to provide an entirely new equipment. 
I think it must be recognized as an economic fact that large outlays of 
money cannot be made without compensating returns. 

' ' With reference to the abatement of the smoke nuisance, it has been 
our purpose in the past, and will be in the future, to cooperate with 
every movement that tends toward the suppression of this element, and 
we are constantly on the alert, training our men and disciplining them in 
the correct method of using coal on our locomotives. The fault, how- 
ever, does not entirely lie with the railroads. If you will observe the 
volumes of smoke made by factories and vessels entering Chicago Harbor, 
I think you will reach the conclusion that even with the elimination of 
the smoke nuisance by steam locomotives, only a small part of the 
nuisance will have been abated." 

The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Company, through 



46 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

its second vice-president, E. W. McKenna, stated its opinion to Mr. 
Morris in these words : 

^ ' The substitution of electric power for the operation of the enormous 
maze of switches and tracks of the terminal yards of the Chicago railways, 
in the present development of the art, would be impossible and imprac- 
ticable. 

' ' The railway companies are doing everything possible for the abate- 
ment of the smoke nuisance, and have equipped their engines with the 
best-known devices, and are expending considerable sums of money in 
the oversight of the performance of their men in this respect. 

^ ' There does not seem to be any good argument that the railroads 
have been lacking in spirit in respect to the maintenance of freight and 
passenger terminals. Railway companies, the same as other large enter- - 
prises, can only travel in the direction they desire to go to the extent of 
their resources. The expansion of traffic in Chicago has been rapid, and 
railway companies are constantly outgrowing their facilities. The in- 
creased cost of land and other items entering into the expansion of such 
facilities in the large cities frequently prevent them from going forward 
as rapidly as they would desire, but it is a reasonable argument that 
they have fairly met their responsibilities in this respect." 

Now these are replies of men interested and entitled to respect. At 
the same time, they are offhand statements of individual men. That 
they are not final is shown in the attitude of other equally responsible 
officials. In March, 1907, the New York Times contained an interview 
with Mr. E. H. Harriman, in which, speaking of electrification in general 
and inspired by Mr. Hill's calHng attention to the demand for larger 
railroad capacity, he is quoted as saying: 

" But perhaps it is chimerical to think now of rebuilding the railroads 
of the entire country and of replacing the entire railroad equipment. 
If so, what is the best thing? Obviously, electricity. And I beUeve 
that the railroads will have to come to that, not only to get a larger unit 
of motor power and of distributing it over the train load, but on account 
of fuel. That brings up another phase of the existing conditions. We 
have to use up fuel to carry our fuel and there are certain limitations here 
just as much as there are in car capacity or motive power, particularly 
when you consider the distribution of the coal-producing regions with 
respect to the major avenues of traffic. The great saving resulting from 
the use of electricity is apparent, quite aside from increasing the tractive 
power and the train load. . . . The only refief which can be obtained 
through economies of physical operation must come through the outlay 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 47 

of enormous amounts of money, such as would be involved in a general 
electrification or a change in gauge." 

From this statement we take it that Mr. Harriman believes in the 
feasibility of electrification. We further understand Mr. Harriman to 
mean that the electrification of an entire railroad system may be desir- 
able Avhen the traffic density rises above a certain point. We reason 
that such a point has been reached in Chicago, for it is impossible to 
conceive of a greater density of population with its induced density 
of traffic lying along the entire length of a railway system, than that 
which Hes along those portions of the railways which are within the city 
limits of Chicago. As to the density of traffic in Chicago (with the ac- 
companying devices for its care) rendering it a physical impossibihty 
to install devices for electrical working, we believe Mr. Harriman too 
astute a manager to suggest a remedy for certain conditions, when those 
very conditions, by their complication, make impossible the application 
of the remedy. 

It is a significant fact that the testimony of those who have been in- 
timately connected with the electrification of roads under dense traffic 
conditions, and who are thus best in a position to judge, has been favor- 
able. Thus the trend of a paper read by Mr. W. J. Wilgus before the 
American Society of Civil Engineers, on March 18, 1908, on the ^' Elec- 
trification of the Suburban Zone of the New York Central & Hudson 
River Railroad in the Vicinity of New York City," was distinctly fav- 
orable. Mr. Wilgus was chief engineer and, later, a vice-president of 
the New York Central during the electrification. Mr. T. E. Byrnes, vice- 
j)resident of the New York, New Haven & Hartford, in an interview 
printed in the Boston Herald of July 3, 1908, is quoted as saying: 

" We feel that the experimental stage of the electric railroad has 
practically passed and that our system has been demonstrated to be suc- 
cessful." 

He is fm^ther quoted as announcing the ultimate electrification of 
the entire New Haven system. Vice-President E. H. McHenry, of the 
New Haven, in an article published in the Street Railway Journal, August 
17, 1907, says: 

'' A general change from steam to electricity will render unproductive 
a very large amount of invested capital and create the necessity for the 
expenditure of additional amounts still greater, but there is no reason 
to doubt that the transition already in progress will be rapidly extended 
and applied to all points where congested terminals, high frequency of 
train service, and low costs of power create favorable conditions." 



48 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

President Charles S. Mellen of the New Haven has been quoted by 
the press as being very favorable to electric traction. A report of the 
Committee of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association in 
1906, was favorable to electric handling of dense subui'ban traffic. Short- 
ly after the electrification of the Mersey road, ]Mr. James Falconer, 
chairman of the Board of Directors, gave some operating figoi^es and 
said: " These figiu-es conclusively estabhshed the superiority of electrical 
traction over steam traction in dealing with such a railway as this." The 
haK-yearly report of the North Eastern railway of England, early in 
1906 stated: ^'Further experience in electric traction of the suburban 
lines in the Newcastle district, has been entirely favorable from a practical 
and from a financial point of view." Speaking of the Lancashire & 
Yorkshire electrification, Sk George Armytage, at the semi-annual meet- 
ing of the company in February 1906, stated: " They had been able to 
do a greater amoimt of work and had given a better service to the public 
which would have been absolutely impossible under the old conditions." 

Existent electrifications extend over a very mde scope. There are 
almost a score of them in the Linited States. Almost every country in 
Europe contains one or more. They vary all the way from a two-mile 
section of track electrified to supply a link in an aUied street-raiiv^ay line 
to full terminal electrifications in large cities. There are some which were 
installed merely to get freight through a tunnel or over a mountain divis- 
ion; there are others which comprehend the entire working of a trimk 
line. Some handle an enormous passenger business — others handle purely 
freight. None presents precisely the same situation as that encountered 
in Chicago. There is no phase of the Chicago situation, however, which 
cannot be found present in some degree in one or more existent electri- 
fications. These, it is our purpose to take up in detail in a later chapter. 
One feature is notable. The more important ones are being extended. 
This is true of the New Haven and the Long Island electrifications in 
this country. Both the terminal roads into Paris are extending their 
electrified zones. The Lancashire & Yorkshire and the North Eastern 
in England, have made extensions. The very important Itahan electri- 
fications have been extended from time to time, — now an extension of 193 
miles has been entered upon. The Prussian Minister of Pubhc Works 
in the Prussian Diet, January 26, 1904, said: " The studies are still in 
then preliminary stages. We cannot imdertake the transportation of 
the general passenger pubhc electrically. It is still uncertain whether 
such roads can be economically profitable. The experiments will be 
continued with necessary^ precautions." Certainly he could not have 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 49 

been more conservative. We now find the Prussian Government enter- 
ing upon the electrification of 226 miles of the Berlin Stadt und Ringbahn, 
and of the 112 miles of double track belonging to the Eifel Bahn. 

All of this goes to show that the replies of the gentlemen to the 
Hamilton Club are not final, and that there is room for an honest differ- 
ence of opinion to exist. 

It shall be our purpose to lay before your honorable body, the in- 
formation which has come to our hands and the reasons pro and con 
regarding electrification, which have been advanced, or which have 
occurred to us, for your assistance in dealing with this matter. It shall 
be our purpose to inquire into the advantages to the public claimed 
for electrification and those to the railroads; the disadvantages of elec- 
trification; its feasibility and practicability. It may be that, without 
regard to what is due the public, the opportunities for economy pre- 
sented may be sufficient to cause the railroads to decide to electrify. 
This is believed to be the cause of the New Haven's extensive electrifi- 
cation and is the avowed cause of the bulk of the electrifications in 
Italy, Austria, Germany, Sweden, Belgium, and Switzerland. It may 
be that certain inherent advantages and opportunities in electric working 
may be so great as to outweigh to the railroads any tangible economy 
to be presented. This might be the case where more extensive working 
of terminal facilities becomes available or a greater attractiveness to 
passengers is expected to bring increased traffic. It is analogous to the 
situation at the stock yards, where the packers spend large sums in 
keeping their plant clean in order to continue the popularity of their 
product with the public. This is said to be the reason for the Erie elec- 
trification in New York State, and of the Long Island railway's elec- 
trification. It is the reason of the various British electrifications, with 
one exception. Again, it may be that public comfort or convenience 
will be found paramount to whatever effect it may have upon the rail- 
ways. Thus, conditions of public safety and comfort required the ex- 
clusion of the gases in the tunnel leading to the Grand Central Station 
in New York City and the New York Central was required to electrify 
the traffic through the timnel, by an act of the Legislature of May 7, 
1903, this being brought about because of the accident of January 8, 
1902, with its large casualty list. Lastly, it may be found that the 
advantages to the public would be small and the burden to the railroad 
large, so that to ask them to electrify would be onerous and unreasonable. 

Considering, now, what electrification would mean to the public, the 
first thing which suggests itself is the ridding of the city of the major 



50 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

part of the smoke, smell, noise, dust, and cinders incident to steam- 
locomotive operation. 

Let us examine whence this amelioration should come. 

In either case coal is burned. Instead of burning coal in the loco- 
motive boiler and generating power at the locomotive, the coal is burned 
imder the boilers of a power-house where electrical power is generated 
and transmitted to the motor. Owing to its being burned under better 
conditions and to the more efficient application of motive power, a 
smaller quantity of coal is consumed per imit of power delivered at the 
axle under electrical working, than under steam traction. For terminal 
service this is in about the ratio of one or two. Under electrical traction 
we are, therefore, only using about half the coal with its smoke-making 
possibilities, to begin with. 

Instead of a number of locomotives spouting smoke up and down 
the railroad, one power-house is substituted. This power-house can 
be located, if necessary, outside the city — certainly away from res- 
idence districts and business and factory districts where close confine- 
ment of workers is required or where materials are kept w^hich will suffer 
damage from soot. 

The smoke of locomotives is delivered low down between close walls 
of houses w^here there is no chance for the wind to disseminate it. The 
products of combustion from a power-house stack are delivered high 
up where they have a chance to be so far diluted as to become innocu- 
ous before settling. 

Smoke prevention is dependent upon completeness of combustion. 
The construction and working of a locomotive boiler do not favor 
perfect combustion. Absolute freedom in the choice of a proper kind 
of boiler is allowable with a central power-house. 

Chain grates, Dutch-oven furnaces, fire-brick arches in the com- 
bustion space, and other devices aid in the suppression of smoke. The 
use of some of these devices is hindered, of others precluded, in a steam 
locomotive. The limitation comes from two directions: first, space 
limitations in a locomotive are such as to prevent their installation 
where they are in constant view or are readily accessible — this being 
necessary for their efficient maintenance and working; second, the cost 
of these devices per horse-power decreases very rapidly with increase 
in size of the boiler or plant to which they are applied. In a locomotive 
boiler, the interest on the cost of their installation, and the upkeep, 
would overbalance the saving in fuel; while appHed to a power-plant it 
would be the other way. Because of economies presented, their instal- 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 51 

lation in a power-plant would come of volition, while their adoption for 
locomotives would be coercive. 

The personal element enters largely into the production of smoke 
by a steam locomotive. Suppose that the construction and appliances 
of a locomotive were favorable to perfect combustion. Personal atten- 
tion would still be necessary to ensure it. There are several hundred 
locomotives in Chicago which demand several hundred firemen to take 
care of them^. (Somewhere around 600 locomotives.) There are 
bound to be inefficient and careless firemen among these hundreds, 
who produce smoke. In the power-house you have one man in charge 
of each shift who can see to it and be held responsible that there is no 
smoke. In addition to the ideal steam locomotives which we have 
supposed, we will further suppose that the single idea of finding men 
who can prevent smoke is pursued (which it cannot be). It is mathe- 
matically easier to find three perfect men to take charge of the shifts 
in a power-house boiler-room, than to find six hundred perfect men to 
put on the locomotives. Suppose, for the moment, that equally capable 
and conscientious men were secured for the two places at the outstart. 
Boiler-room duties are simple and the demands steady; a fireman's 
duties are manifold and the demands extremely variable. Therefore 
we would expect the boiler-room man to develop into a smoke-preven- 
tion expert; this would be asking too much of the locomotive fireman. 

Because of clearance hmitations, for structural reasons, and because 
of the necessity for a rapid passage of exhaust gases in order to get 
capacity, a locomotive stack cannot be otherwise than short and of 
small cross-sectional area, — both of these characteristics, in that they 
admit of neither time nor space requisite to bring into intimate mixture 
gases and solid matter which might otherwise combine while hot, — are 
productive of smoke. A power-house affords an opportunity of supply- 
ing the most efficient form of stack and the working of several boilers 
attached to one stack affords an opportunity for an excess of hot air 
from one boiler to consume in the uptake a surplus of carbonaceous mat- 
ter rising from another before both are discharged into the atmosphere 
and cooled below the temperature of ignition. 

The locomotive must employ a steam jet in the stack to get draught. 
This lifts up volumes of cinders, ashes, and sooty matter and discharges 
it into the atmosphere along the track. With the slower passage of gases 
in a power-plant boiler, this action is absent. 

The moist steam in locomotive smoke makes the soot cling more 
tenaciously to individuals and buildings. 



52 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 

The demand on the furnace of a locomotive is intermittent — jerky. 
When the speed is suddenly increased, the suction of the air past the 
stack sucks up volumes of smoke and dust; this is aggravated by the 
fact that the fireman has usually put on fresh coal a short time before 
in anticipation of the increased demand and the surface of this coal has 
not yet been cemented by the heat. In the power-house, the demand 
is continuous and even. 

The locomotive is continually dropping ashes along the road which 
are scooped up by the train in its rush and scattered to the atmosphere, 
— this fine dust being extremely irritating. With electrically-propelled 
trains making no dirt and with rock ballast, eventually the track should 
be free from dirt and there should be no more dust in travelling along 
it than is encountered in a street car. 

Certain noises inherent to steam locomotives would be done away 
with by electrical working such as the noise of the reciprocating parts 
and the puffing smoke-stacks. Others would be minimized because 
of the even action of an electric motor as opposed to the reciprocating 
movement of engine parts. 

This detailed examination leads us to beheve that a larger percentage 
of the smoke nuisance in Chicago comes from the raih'oads, than a con- 
sideration of the railroad coal consumption being 13 per cent of the total 
coal consumption would at first indicate. Merely as an estimate, we 
should say the smoke producing tendency with railroads is intensified 
somewhere around thi'ee times the average. This would mean 35 to 
40 per cent of the smoke nuisance in Chicago is due to the railroads. 
With their convergence upon the loop district and the large yards at 
their tennini, we are led to beheve that 60 per cent of the smoke in the 
loop district may be laid at the door of the railroads. 

Besides the increased comfort of the pubhc at large and the increased 
attractiveness to those who use the railroads, the removal of this smoke 
and dirt would work an economy to the community. Some of the sav- 
ings which would ensue, are: 

1. A large saving in merchandise now damaged by soot. In a mer- 
cantile business this now demands the imposition of from 1% to 10% 
burden, depending upon the perishabiUty of the stock handled. 

2. A saving in the extra amount expended for cleaning windows, 
hangings, and furnishings, for periodically cleaning stone and brickwork, 
for more frequent painting, and for increased personal expenditm^es. As 
to extra cleaning of stonework, take the case of Denver where there are 
a great many stone houses of dehcate tints, but where the atmosphere 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 53 

is clean, — the necessity for cleaning stonework, there, is extremely- 
rare. As to painting, perhaps the best case of segregation of paintwork 
where nothing but atmosphere dirt (mainly smoke) can affect it, is 
in the case of vessels of the United States Navy. Steam vessels are 
usually painted two to three times a year — sailing vessels but once. 
As to increased personal expenses, a small example will suffice. It 
is a frequent matter of comment by people who come here from other 
places, that linen will stay fresh in Chicago only one-half as long as 
elsewhere. There are at least 200,000 men in Chicago who are affected 
by it. Three extra collars a week in the laundry for them means 
$12,000 a week toll to smoke, or $624,000 a year — enough to pay 
interest, sinking fund, and taxes upon the investment in purely elec- 
trical equipment for the electrification of two entire railroad terminals. 

3. Property values would be largely enhanced through the furnish- 
ing of more attractive means of transportation in the outlying districts 
and through the greater comfort and less care required for housekeeping 
closer in. 

4. A saving through the better health of the community due to 
purer air in working and living spaces. This has a tangible value to be 
reckoned in the value of workers' time saved from sickness and an 
intangible value arising from the greater efficiency and capacity for 
work of men who are in better physical condition. 

5. With hot cinders eliminated, it is probable that there will be a 
shght saving in fire loss. It seems reasonable to suppose that a shghtly 
reduced insurance rate could be secured for grain elevators and lumber 
yards with the locomotives taken out of proximity to them. The pos- 
sible saving to an operating company in insurance premiums, through 
maintenance or construction of a plant in such a way as to reduce the 
fire risk, is very well brought out in the recent report of President Mitten 
of the Chicago City Railways, regarding the insurance carried by that 
corporation. A tabulation of this is quoted as follows: 





Insurable 


Insurance 








Property 


Carried 


Rate 


Premium 


July 1905 


.$5,300,000 


$2,300,000 


$2.22 


$51,060 


January 1906. . . 


. 6,441,869 


6,441,000 


1.00 


64,418 


January 1907 . . 


. 7,442,500 


7,442,500 


.82 


60,864 


October 1907. . . 


. 9,660,000 


9,660,000 


.68 


65,688 


June 1908 


. 9,775,000 


9,775,000 


.60 


58,650 



By adopting a fire-proof construction of barns and using other means 
to reduce the fire risk, this company is enabled to secure a rate of less 



54 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

than one-third of its old rate and is able to carry insurance on nearly 
$10,000,000 for less than was formerly paid for about $6,500,000. 

6. With electrical working, it would be possible to extend the 
upper stories of industrial plants over the tracks now occupied by 
switch-tracks to these plants, thus rendering the groimd available for 
double occupancy. This is being done in New York where the New 
York Central expects to cover its entne terminal yard with office 
buildings. 

7. Not as a result of the abohtion of smoke, but because of the 
greater facilities afforded under electrical operation, a great saving in 
time will result to those who have to use the railroads in transacting 
business. 

WTiile the abolition of nuisances makes a large appeal to the citizen, 
there is another large aspect. That is, the ability to afford better 
transportation facilities under electrification. The railroads occupy a 
large part of the city. Former routes of public travel have been given 
over to them and they possess broad avenues from where the people 
live into the heart of where they work. Their obligation to the public 
does not stop where their freight traffic has been cared for. They are 
capable of affording valuable passenger facilities to the public and it is 
to be expected that they will. 

To come up the bank of the drainage canal is probably the only 
remaining avenue into Chicago, except at a forbidding expense. There 
is no more room for more railroads, — the present facilities must be 
developed to a higher intensity of working as time comes on. This, 
in itself, will force electrification at some future time. If, then, it is 
to come, why not have it now and let the people have the advantage of 
better local transportation facilities meanwhile? 

There is just now a movement toward the suburbs. People want 
more room and better air. The city is daily becoming wealthier and 
a good many people would Hke to go farther away from the center of 
town if they could get back and forth from work without having to 
struggle with a time table. There are sparsely settled districts in the 
suburbs which need these people. The railroads run through them. 
Obviously, the thing to do is for the railroads to afford the local trans- 
portation facilities for them. Until a largely increased growth of popu- 
lation in them is induced, it will not pay to build electric systems to 
them. The quickest way to render them available to the people is to 
electrically equip the railroads to them. It is also the cheapest way, 
since the electrical equipment of the railroad will only cost a fifth of 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 55 

what an entirely new system would cost. It is also the quickest way 
to insui'e returns upon the investment involved, since only one-fifth 
of the growth will be required to balance the investment in the case of 
the electrification of the existing road against the investment in an 
entirely new road. 

There is this to be considered: One hour's time is about the limit 
that a man will travel regularly to his work. The surface street cars 
go out this far at present. There is little more from them to be hoped 
for. The distance which they coyer, beyond a certain point, is not 
determined by the speed they can make. They are capable of making 
better speed now than can be utilized. What holds them down is the 
necessity of passing across numerous streets and along streets encum- 
bered with traffic. With increasing street traffic we shall expect the 
zone which they serve to constrict rather than expand. The railroads 
are independent of street crossings and of street traffic. The limit of 
the zone of one hoiu"'s travel merely depends upon the speed at which 
cars can be run. Ultimately, therefore, the extension of the city must 
hinge upon the ability of existing steam railroads to afford adequate 
local transportation. 

For adequate local transportation facilities electrical working is the 
key. Because of its perfect control, higher and more even acceleration, 
higher speed, absence of switching, ability to haul any length of train 
as traffic demands and better ability to meet schedule so as to produce 
fewer disarrangements at terminals, — electrical working holds the ad- 
vantage over steam. 

Lastly, the desirability of electric traction to the public comes from 
the increased safety of travel which it offers. This comes because, — 

1. The presence of smoke tends to obscure signals, approaching 
trains^ and track defects. This is true more in foggy than in clear 
weather. 

2. Convenient electrical power would mean its greater availability 
for fighting and for working mechanical safety-devices. 

3. The operator on an electric locomotive has a better view of the 
track from his cab than the engineer on a steam locomotive, he has 
fewer devices to keep under his eye within the cab, and they are more 
nearly installed so as to be in fine of \dsion with the track. 

4. The operator on an electric locomotive is physically more com- 
fortable than a locomotive engineer; consequently he should be more 
alert and his judgment clearer. 

5. The handle controlling the supply of current to a motor car or 



56 ELECTRiriCATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 

electric locomotive can be so arranged that turning it loose cuts the 
power from the motors. Thus, in case of a motorman losmg his head 
in the face of an impending coUision or derailment, the power will be 
automatically shut off by his letting go of the lever. This is used in 
the New York subway cars. 

6. With electrical working, it is possible to arrange the block system 
so that a train's running into a closed block will automaticall}^ cut the 
power from that block and bring all trains within it to a standstill. 
This arrangement has been adopted on the Valtellina line in Italy, 
The Boston Elevated is equipped with a device which cuts the power 
from a train and apphes the air-brakes when a train nms into a closed 
block. 

7. With an electrical system, in the case of the discovery of an 
error in train despatching or a disregard of orders, it is possible to avert 
disaster by cutting off the current from the entire line. A report of 
such action has come in the case of a street railway. The Xew York, 
New Haven & Hartford has smtches in the signal-towers which come 
at the end of line sections, whereby the power can be cut off at the 
signal-tower from a train which enters a closed block. 

^Tien we come to ask what electrification means to the railroads, 
we find that its desirabihty or undesu^abihty from a railroad point of 
\'iew, becomes almost entirely a question of economics. It is either a 
question of sa^dng money or of making more money. It is believed 
that it T\'ill mean both in a good many cases. 

Certain sa^dngs in operation are possible from electrical working 
over the costs under steam worldng. It becomes merely a question 
as to whether the economies will balance capital and maintenance 
charges upon the additional outlay involved. This, in turn, becomes 
a question of whether there is traffic density sufficient for the cumula- 
tive saATng to offset the fixed charges. These items vary, of course, 
with each railroad. Let us examine where these economies may be 
expected to be fotmd. 

The absence of smoke and dh't will result, — 

1. In longer-hved furnishings and apptirtenances, paint, varnish, 
etc., of equipment. This foUows (a) because dh't and gases are hard 
upon the life of these materials; (Jb) because the process of cleaning 
them tends to wear. 

2. Less expeditiu"e for cleaning and renovating equipment. The 
lessened cost of renovation follows from (1). The lessened cost of 
cleaning comes in two directions, (a) the dirt T\dll be smaller in quantity; 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 57 

(h) what there is will be easier to clean. Soot and kindred products 
cling tenaciously. To remove them with soap and water requires an 
excess of scrubbing. The British use kerosene or gasoline, since carbon 
is best put in suspension by a hydrocarbon oil. But these are rather 
good at dissohdng pigments, so the paintwork suffers. 

3. In a lessened cost of upkeep of stations and other buildings. 

4. In longer-lived steel work of viaducts, terminal sheds, and other 
structures exposed to locomotive gases. Locomotive gases are pecu- 
liarly corrosive. A large part of this action is probably due to the con- 
tained sulphurous acid — arising from the combustion of the sulphur 
in the coal and the admixtiu-e of the sulphur dioxide with the moist 
steam of the exhaust. A striking instance of the effect of these gases 
was afforded by the Boylston Street bridge in Boston, over four main 
tracks of the Boston & Albany Railroad. This bridge was erected in 
1888 and in 1907 an examination was made. A plank floor covered 
the floor beams and the bottom part of the trusses, and above this floor 
the bridge members were found to be of their original size. Below this 
floor the bridge had been exposed to the gases and an examination 
showed the metal to have disappeared to an average of 3^'' on each 
exposed surface. Several steel eye-bar diagonals had lost 60% of 
their original section and some iron floor beam angles had lost their 
entire outstanding leg. Some diagonal bracing was corroded in two. 
The chemical effects were much more marked than the mechanical. 

5. In an allowable working of equipment to a greater capacity, due 
to less time kept out of service for cleaning and renovation, and, due to 
the greater attractiveness, filling the coaches nearer to their capacity. 

6. There will be less wanton damage to equipment by the public. 
To invite respect, usually meets with response. This is shown nega- 
tively in the case of smoking cars on the elevated railroads, as compared 
with the other cars of the train. They invite abuse and receive it. 

There are large savings possible which come from the nature of the 
locomotive itself and its inherent method of working. The locomo- 
tive is a highly developed, wonderfully specialized, and admirably 
worked-out machine. It represents better than almost any other 
apparatus what can be done despite hmitations. But it remains a 
compromise machine. Certain things could be done if it were not for 
weight; others if it were not for vibration; again, the permissible 
width is absolutely Hmited by gauge of track. So it comes that an 
electric system, with all of its opportunities for loss in generators, 
transmission lines, transforming apparatus, working conductors, and 



58 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

motors, is able to deliver power at the axle of the tractor at a less cost 
in operating expenses and in maintenance, because freedom from re- 
strictions enables each link in the chain to be chosen of the highest 
type of efficiency. 

Items which induce to such economy are (a) those which come from 
abihty to use a better style of boiler-plant; (6) those which come from 
using a better type of prime mover; (c) changes for the better in opera- 
tion afforded; and (d) those which come from the superior general char- 
acteristics of electric motor vehicles. 

Under (a) we find: 

1. A steam locomotive boiler has not so good a water circulation as 
the specially designed types of water-tube boilers, the pass of the hot 
gases is not sufficient to extract the maximum efficiency, it fouls easily, 
and must be worked at a rate higher than that which makes for effi- 
ciency. 

2. The refinements applicable to stationary boilers to produce 
economies, are barred of apphcation to locomotives. These take the 
form of devices to seciu^e even firing, to regulate air supply, to insure 
combustion, and to utilize the heat of uptake gases and condensed 
water. They comprise variously such items as automatic stokers, 
specially designed furnaces, baffles, superheaters, draft apparatus and 
air heaters, and feed water heaters. Their use is precluded because 
of space limitations or else because their cost is so high that the saving 
they would effect would not balance fixed charges upon the investment. 
As their cost per unit of capacity decreases with size, their use on power- 
plant boilers allows a net financial saving. This also appears true of 
certain of them (such as superheaters) on very large locomotives. The 
evaporation efficiency of locomotives as compared with stationary 
boilers, is as seven to ten, according to Mr. W. S. Murray as quoted in 
the Street Railway Journal of November 16, 1907. 

3. The small surface of water area from which the steam is to rise, 
the intensity with which it is worked, the impure water which a loco- 
motive boiler is more liable to get, the lurching of a locomotive imder 
way, and the intermittent demand, all tend to produce priming in a 
locomotive boiler. In addition to the thermal waste involved in the 
passage over and going to waste of water heated just up to the steaming 
point, water primed over produces a mechanical loss disproportionate 
to its ratio to the volimie of steam which brings it over. In the opera- 
tion of engines where priming is bad, it is a common thing to see the 
engine slow down several revolutions while working the water through. 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 59 

Besides the direct loss, priming runs up the repair bill. It is responsi- 
ble for most of the broken piston rods, smashed cylinder heads and like 
accidents. In a year's observation of the steam-engine accidents which 
came to the largest engine builder in the coimtry, we found no case of 
cylinder or piston smash-up which was not due to water in the cylinder. 
Again, on marine engines we have found the coveted glass-smooth polish 
of a cylinder ruined and the cylinder wall granulated by a few hours' 
rimning with the boilers priming. 

4. The locomotive boiler, compared with other types, presents 
rather a hard proposition from the standpoint of upkeep and repair. 
It violates the canons of boiler design that every portion should be readily 
accessible for inspection, for cleaning, and for repairs. It has short turns, 
sharp corners, and large flat surfaces — all of which are bad from a stand- 
point of stress distribution and from that of facility and cheapness of 
repair. It has screwed stays and these exposed to the severest local 
action. The scale tends to stop up the water-legs where the flame action 
is concentrated. These characteristics make the boiler the weak part 
of the unit. Unfortunately, when the boiler goes wrong, the whole 
locomotive must be sent to the shop and taken out of service — and, in 
many cases, partly dismantled. Dismantling machinery nearly always 
entails minor expenses of repairs and adjustment. Repairs of an elec- 
tric locomotive or motor car usually entail the dropping out of the motor 
truck or motor axle and replacing it with a good one — the machine re- 
maining in service. (This follows because the weak point of such ma- 
chines is the armature of the motor.) In the case of minor repairs 
several hours must elapse between drawing out the fires and emptying 
out the boiler and its becoming cool enough to allow the boiler to be 
worked upon, — while the motor armature becomes available upon shut- 
ting off the current. A lessened repair cost also comes from the greater 
accessibility of the motor parts. 

Under (6) we find : 

1. The type of engine which must be chosen for a locomotive is the 
least desirable type from an economic point of view. The engine em- 
ployed is a short-stroke, high-piston-speed, slide-valve, throttling-regula- 
ting, hand-controlled engine. As opposed to long-stroke, slow-running, 
load-controlled, Corliss engines available for a central power-house, they 
are wasteful. In the case of simple, non-condensing engines, worked 
to advantage, the water consumption per 1 h. p. hour would stand some- 
where at 36 for the locomotive type against 24 for the Corliss engine. 
With the further availment of compound condensing working the dis- 



GO ELECrmPICATIOX J RAILWAY 



.^-^ 



crepancy beconies greato". In addkicm^ th«e is aTaflaUe foF the power- 



^^.-■» 



r-V reslrk?te*i in 5 To^oinotive. 



rfurrT ■" " 



- 1. 



tiian in A VLij.;:^T tZ^^t 1:;:i_:-:--t ::~: ;_- : ^t;.^ ;,- /..r; - -: 
high tit -_- :::_:-:: L :izt :i. -ll::-;: ;::;;:::_:; :;-:-:- r^iz^:-:? 

dow: "' ::•'""■: ~l:z^ -:: -7 .: iniotrTTt. -_::t: Mt ^ Z-TiFepattiieir 
'^90u .u^5 H- 5 :— - T z ir z : \iQtam 1: -=: :z — ^ w^re toW ':7 

the enrr:i^:~ ~i: ::z "ItI-i "1;" -^=" — tIt ^"t:ii.i -"^T'Ss" w^^l 
yoa inc-:: :: 5;:tt;. :..t_:_ r: \i: [:/::-::,, zr-T- ;: :JLr indk^:-:. 
water c:il5::ii": i- : ^i_^-t :i^ . ;_::::. . :i_i::i~e5 at varving: 
speeds, as gi-"rz iz. ZtZ.: ':-::.r :^ii^ : .::. Tlr" :;I;~ 



Twc-C Tiz: ~ zz J : :iz sr:sDS 

Wafcer 

: : .1 : 18.33 

1: - : : 18.90 

20Dio2oO .1 19.70 

290 to 275 oi i:. jo 21 .40 



Water 

E- -? - - T ^ lii^l».lir. 

-o. o. 21.70 

219 45 20.91 

253 52 20.52 

307 63 20.23 

321 66 20.01 



The statemoit is made that the C. B &^ Q. two-cyiiz t 1 zid 
which was about 30% less e: ziiz 1 1 l gmrfeengzit : 1t :i_r 
da^ ~1tZ- Trszed in paaaaigT 1 t _ V: :z. r beoi si ; -n : r 1: ~ 

11 T ; : Z- : !_: :al in frd^t 5-" , ; r 

. _ -lotaKrifi -amy except in ftei^taer- 

"ir ^ z r T z T 1 of cc -iz zz- , LI " - ~ I I zp^caT timited. 
7\z ■"":-::_:.:. T :t;::^z- *:z_ ; :Zz^_t- ZtLzi^t:. " ' ;; z zition leads 

to iL3Ji£._z:_ ; _ z :: :zt zz_z;.t. ^ ""z :"= ":zz_ :: It; zlt^ 7.:: " "--^fatiiig 
eoraditicL^ zz ::t t "l _ t tZZ :_ t :z zz:- : ; 1 zz; 
being re : Z.Z -: . z:. : r : : . ::/.^~^^ --:~z:r :: T--r ',:./: ".ItZ z.: 
requires zl_;' ;.t ::""tZ"::z l ^z;"z_ ';;■ "Zt :::: 'z:" "Zt zz. 
state z':zzzzt:zt ! : Z5::z :r":\:: ^z;— - "Zt Z-\zzi':t: :: 



LTi i-mrkOi; 



locfflnotz Tt zz It zl z- Vi_ ^zatest: 

berolsizj-Z^r 1: : :z:-:'Z'7= z;.zz_";zi- l^ zzzi.iaI : 

TLe =:"zz.z :: ;:z:z:z.:_: :"'t: tzizpie wcrkiz. 

br obtaiQ&z T ~ - z ziz : z . zzees ic: 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 61 

3. Vacuum worldng is precluded in a locomotive. The use of a 
condenser in a stationary engine gives results varying with the conditions, 
but the saving effected will come somewhere around 35%, for which 
an outlay of 2% to 3% is expended for running the pumps connected 
with the condenser. 

4. As a small engine, the locomotive engine possesses the inherent 
defects of such, which go to decrease efficiency. These, as compared 
with large engines, are increased surfaces presented for radiative losses 
per imit of power, increased clearance percentage, increased mechanical 
friction, increased skin friction of steam against the walls of pipes and 
passages and larger possibihties of loss through leaks and drains. Thus 
the coal per h.-p. hour in a simple, non-condensing, slide-valve engine 
decreases from 12 pounds in the case of a 5 h.-p. engine, to 8 pounds 
with a 100 h.-p. one. 

Merely the substitution of the more efficient apparatus in the central 
power-house would lead us to expect the coal consumption in the power- 
house to be less than one-half that of the locomotive per h.-p. devel- 
oped. Take Mr. Quereau's figures quoted above. They run about 
20 pounds of water per 1 h.-p. hour. Allow 10% discrepancy between 
indicated consumption and actual consumption, and this figure becomes 
22 pounds. 

Around 12 poimds is easily secured at modern power-stations on 
test. (The Subway showed 11.96; the Waterside Edison plant 12.16; 
Cincinnati showed 12.28; the larger turbine tests give under 12; the 
South Side Elevated vertical engines were guaranteed at 12.5.) Since 
the evaporative efficiency of the boilers stood as 7 to 10, we should 
expect the coal consumption of the locomotive to be f| x ^ = 2 . 65 
times that of the power-plant as the very smallest figure. Certain factors 
in operation which cause the power-plant engine to approach closely 
its test performance whilst in everyday use, and cause the locomotive 
to diverge therefrom, will increase this in the neighborhood of 50%, 
or the power-house consumption will be about one-quarter that of the 
locomotive per h. p. developed. Allowing 90% engine efficiency, 92% 
generator efficiency, 97% for high-tension line, 97% for transformer 
efficiency, 92% for rotaries, 95% for third rail, and 80% for motors, 
— gives an overall efficiency of 54.47% in applying our power to the 
axles. Thus we may expect that for every h. p. applied to the axles, 
4 X 54 . 47, or rather more than two pounds of coal, will be used for 
steam-locomotive traction against one for electric traction. Mr. W. 
S. Murray estimates the coal consumption of the New York, New 



62 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Haven & Hartford railway (of which road he is the electrical engineer) 
as follows : 

Tons Coal Tons Coal 

Trains Steam Electric 

Express 57,477 29,870 

Local Express 58,300 28,600 

Freight 187,844 139,010 

Under (c) we find: 

1. The load on the power-house engines will be steady, while that 
on the steam locomotive is continually and suddenly fluctuating be- 
tween large limits. The tendency for a number of electric locomotives 



Q 

Z 
D 
O 

a. 



D 

on 

< 



< 

a: 
Q 




150 Secs. 



DRAW-BAR PULL — STEAM LOCOMOTIVE 



or motor cars out on the line will be to equalize the fluctuations on the 
power-house engines — one will be drawing a maximum supply while 
another will be requiring very Httle current; at the most, the increment 
of several himdred h. p. from an individual, unbalanced train-starting 
load will produce a very small percentage variation upon the load of 
several thousand h. p. carried on the power-house engines, while on the 
individual steam locomotive such increment means a variation of two 
to three hundred per cent beyond the normal power requirement. 
Above is given a sketch reproductive of the dynamometer record 
of draw-bar pull (indicative of power developed), of a steam loco- 
motive in the tests made for the New York Central by Messrs. 
Arnold and Potter in the preliminary electrification investigation for 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 



63 



% Efficiency 



I— I 
o 



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k! ° 

CD 



a° 

02 



^ O 

m 























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Of 



that road. (Published in the Proceedings American Institute Elec- 
trical Engineers, June 19, 1902.) This shows the fluctuation on a 
short run. While the load on the power-house engines will vary from 
hour to hour, it will be a gradual variation and, since the number of 
trains, their schedule and their probable weight will be known, the vari- 



64 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

ations of this load can be determined beforehand and the number 
and size of engines running at the power-house will be so adjusted as to 
insure the power-house engines nm.ning at approximately then* point 
of most economical performance. The difference in efhciency in work- 
ing an engine at fractional or overload and working it at designed load 
is shown in the curves on page 63, where C. D. E. is a curve plotted 
from the guarantees given by the builders for a small Corliss engine, 
while C. F. G. represents the test performance of a Westinghouse Parsons 
tm'bine at the New York Subway plant. Both are plotted from steam 
consumption with the point of maximum efficiency reckoned as 90% 
efficiency and as 100% load. That they represent steam consumption 
should be borne in mind. Cm^ves of coal consumption would make 
a still further unfavorable showing at points of largely reduced load 
or large overload. This is true l:)ecause of the drop in boiler efficiency 
at overload because of crowding, and at Hght loads because of the 
increase in proportionate effect of losses which are fairly constant, i. e., 
radiation, coal dropped through grate bars and lost with ashes, stand- 
by losses, etc. 

Of course, upon the individual motor car or electric locomotive, the 
percentage variation in power demand will be somewhere near (but not 
exactly, because of more even torque upon the axles) the same as upon 
a steam locomotive. But it is so happens that there is a wide variation 
in the efficiency of an}^ steam engine (and a steam locomotive is a 
steam engine) between rated load working and working at underload 
or overload, while the efficiency of a motor remains fairly constant be- 
tween wide hmits. The curve C. A. B. in the diagram represents the 
efficiency of a railway motor. Owing to the large demand for power 
in accelerating, any tractive vehicle (be it steam or electric) must or- 
dinarily run at one-quarter to one-third of its rated power. In the 
diagram, the shaded area represents this range and the difference in 
efficiency is apparent. (The engine is a Corliss engine and will regulate 
better and show a better fractional load efficiency than a steam loco- 
motive's engine.) 

2. The lessening of the number of points at which aggravation of 
troubles may occur, the better physical conditions of operation, and 
the greater facihty for observation and repair of apparatus, which are 
afforded by electrical working, will result, — ffi^st, in a lessened mainten- 
ance charge for equipment; second, in a nearer approach of working 
performance of electrical apparatus to test performance than in the 
case of steam locomotives; third, in less dead time for repairs. 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 65 

Simple wear of moving parts is probably the smallest item leading 
to repair bills in steam engines and the severer service of steam loco- 
motives makes theirs an aggravated case. A little trouble developes 
in a steam locomotive while miderway — it is a small affair, but it 
cannot be seen or attended to on the road, for the engine must be 
kept running; at the end of the run it has grown to a disablement. 
Thus, a stuffing-box begins to blow, a couple of turns is given the nuts, 
the packing burns, and a cut rod results; or a loose cross-head wedge 
gradually jars out and the cylinder is wrecked. This same aggravation 
exists in a measure in electric locomotives, but a good many of the 
aggravating initial causes are reduced. The primary motor is rotary 
instead of reciprocal, which reduces purely local stresses on parts; which 
reduces the total jar of the tractor trucks and body as a whole; and 
which decreases the superposition of local stresses upon general stresses 
in such manner as to be alternately in and out of phase and to lead to 
a wider stress variation with quicker consequential failure of parts. 
There are no parts of the electric motor which require the confining 
of a hot vapor under pressure; mechanical injury to the confining 
medium bringing a rending action. The reduction in \dbration of parts 
under stress minimizes the ability of these parts to assume positions not 
contemplated in their design and which lead to their subjection to un- 
safe loads with consequent failure. The interdependency of electric 
motor parts is less than that of steam locomotive engine and boiler 
parts. A local injury is more liable to remain localized. 

The wider range in temperature of steam locomotive parts tends 
to bring up the repair bills. This affects the engine as well as the boiler 

— the expenses chargeable to the latter' s maintenance being eliminated 
with electric locomotives. With electric working there should be less 
dirt and that which does come has less access to working parts, due to 
the enclosure of motor and bearings. 

Of course, with an electrical system there will be steam engines (or 
tiu-bines) in the power-house, and steam boilers, just as on locomotives 

— with their chances for developing broken parts, leaky glands, split 
boiler tubes and other troubles which lead to maintenance charges and 
to a departure from test efficiency. Each power-house imit, however, 
will displace a score of steam-locomotive units on the road, and the num- 
ber of parts Hable to develop such faults will be reduced in proportion. 
The imits will be subject to no shock or disturbance and will be shielded 
from all external contributing causes of trouble, the current practice 
of keeping a spare unit on hand will allow trouble to be repaired before 



66 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

it becomes aggravated, the accessibility of all parts will insiire their 

adequate attention as well as their prompt repair, and the responsibilty 

of the man in charge of their operation and for their maintenance as 

well, will also lead to timely measures being taken. How small this 

maintenance becomes is shown by the distribution of operating expenses 

of electric roads taken from the census report. Maintenance of steam 

plant is credited with 9-10 of 1% of the operating expenses and of electric 

plant with 6-10 of 1%, or a total 1.5% of operating expenses or 9-10 of 

1% of gross income. From the table of k. w.-hour costs for power-house 

disbursements given in Marechal's ^'Ghemins de fer electriques," the 

following table is made up, giving the percentage of k. w.-hour costs 

charged to power-house maintenance and running repairs, together with 

oil J waste, etc. 

Baltimore 10% 

West Side, Chicago 30%* 

Boston Elevated 40%* 

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago 9% 

Indianapolis 16% 

Paris Metropolitan 20%* 

Those marked with an asterisk are evidently arbitrary since there is 
an evident common divisor entering each component making up the 
total cost. 

The following percentages of expenditinres for material and supplies 
chargeable to the maintenance and repairs of the European stations, 
are calculated from Parshall and Hobart ('' Electrical Railway Engi- 
neering"): 

Glasgow 12.8% 

London 8 % 

Dublin 8.2% 

It being reasoned that the maintenance and repair of electrically- 
propelled vehicles will be less than that of steam-propelled ones, let us 
examine actual results. 

Taking the 1907 report of the Illinois Railroad and Warehouse Com- 
mission, and calculating from the total operating expenses, the oper- 
ating expenses per car mile, and the amount of operating expenses 
charged to maintenance of equipment, we find the following values for 
maintenance per car mile on electric third-rail roads, — 

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago 1 .38 cents per car mile. 

Chicago & Oak Park Elevated 1 .02 cents per car mile. 

Metropolitan Elevated 1 . 55 cents per car mile. 

Northwestern Elevated 1 . 90 cents per car mile. 

South Side Elevated 1 . 41 cents per car mile. 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 67 

From the Massachusetts Railroad Commission Report, we calculate 
for the same, Boston Elevated 1.84 cents per car mile. 

Mr. Potter (^'Developments of Electric Traction," before New York 
Railroad Club, January 20, 1905, — quoted in Street Railway Journal), 
gives the maintenance of electrical equipment on the Manhattan 
Elevated cars as J^ cent per car mile. 

Cserhati states that on the Valtelhna, from July 1, 1903, to June 
30, 1904, the maintenance and repair of rolling stock, including electrical 
equipment and mechanical parts, was 1.38 cents per locomotive mile. 

On the Paris-Orleans Une, the maintenance and repairs per train 
mile, according to M. Dubois are 2.5 cents per train mile; and on the 
Paris-Versailles (largely multiple-imit trains) 2.4 cents per train mile. 

On the Mersey road, according to Dawson, the repairs and renewals 
of ' ' wagons and carriages" per train mile were reduced from 3.498 cents 
to 2.150 cents by changing from steam to electrical working. 

A. H. Armstrong (lectm*e before Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, 
December 5, 1905) estimated the expense per car mile of motor cars, in- 
cluding maintenance and repairs, inspection of car bodies and trucks, 
painting, varnishing, etc., at 1 cent per car mile. 

Dawson (''Engineering and Electric Traction Pocket Book") 
estimates similarly .961 cent per car mile. 

For electric-locomotive repairs, Mr. W. S. Murray is quoted in the 
technical press as estimating for the New Haven, 2.5 cents per train mile. 

The expenses for a New York Central electric locomotive, for in- 
spection and repairs, on a 100,000-mile test run, were 1.26 cents per 
train mile. 

The St. Louis & Belleville Electric Railway, in a letter to the General 
Electric Company stated, regarding their electric locomotives, that 
for an average working of 312 days per year hauling coal and miscella- 
neous freight, averaging about ten hours per day, the electric-loco- 
motive repairs (for the locomotive performing this work), were a little 
over $88.00. 

The International Railway Company, m a letter to the General 
Electric Company, stated that records covering the cost of maintenance 
of two electric locomotives for three years and eight months, showed 
a total of $1257.56, or an average of $342.96 per annum. This is $171.48 
per annum per locomotive. The letter states that the locomotives make 
an average of 100 miles per day for seven days in the week and are out of 
commission for repairs about five days a year. This figures less than 
]/^ cent per locomotive mile. 



68 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Byers (Railway Economics) gives the repair cost of steam railroad 
passenger cars per car mile for 1903, as follows : 

B. & 91 cents per car mile. 

P. R. R 2 . 06 cents per car mile. 

P. R. R. Western Lines, N. W. Systeml . 72 cents per car mile. 
P. R. R. Western Lines, S. W. System. . 1 . 40 cents per car mile. 

B. & M 1 . 55 cents per car mile. 

New Haven 1 . 44 cents per car mile. 

D. & R. G 88 cents per car mile. 

Hocking Valley 1 . 56 cents per car mile. 

St. L. & S. W 1 . 29 cents per car mile. 

C. & 1 . 23 cents per car mile. 

N. & W 1 . 60 cents per car mile. 

C. & G. W 86 cents per car mile. 

I. C 1 .04 cents per car mile. 

C. R. R. of N. J 1.11 cents per car mile. 

M. St. P. & S. S. M 1 .00 cents per car mile. 

Erie 1 . 79 cents per car mile. 

L. V 2.00 cents per car mile. 

C. I. & L 1 . 87 cents per car mile. 

Southern 1 . 27 cents per car mile. 

A. T. & S. F 90 cents per car mile. 

An examination of the data afforded leads to the conclusion that 
the increased cleanliness, less severe working conditions and lessened 
wear and tear of electrical working will effect so large a saving in coach 
maintenance and repair, that an electrically-propelled multiple-unit 
train will entail about the same expense for upkeep of both coaches 
and electrical equipment combined, as is expended for the upkeep of 
coaches alone in steam working. Remembering that the average train 
for suburban and passenger service is somewhere around a four-car 
train, in the case of a train drawn by an electric locomotive, it would 
also seem true that enough will be saved in the upkeep of coaches to 
pay for the upkeep of electric locomotives. In the case of freight 
trains adequate data is not available. 

It would thus be indicated that, in the case of a complete conversion, 
the entire steam-locomotive repair bill could be saved as a net saving 
toward offsetting the fixed charges on electrification. 

3. There is a good deal of time that the steam locomotive is burning 
coal and rendering no return. Thus, when the steam locomotive is 
stopped, the fire goes on just the same. Most of the heat developed 
goes to waste. The attached diagram gives a graphic representation 
of the employment of 22 suburban locomotives observed on the Illinois 
Central, during 24 hours. The spaces outlined above the long Unes 



4 AM 


« R lO 12 M2 4 6 8 


lO 


12 M.d 


2 


4 




i 






































1 
1 


" 








" 




' 




















































Eng. 1402 



12 M 2 4 6 8 10 

HOURS IN SERVICE — I.e. SUBURBAN LOCOMOTIVES 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 69 

represent north-bound runs and the spaces underneath, south-bound 
runs, — while the unoccupied portions of the line represent the time 
idle during 24 hours. These constituted about one-half of the loco- 
motives in service on the Illinois Central suburban runs during this 
day, and represent the lowest 22 nimibers on the line, the other loco- 
motives being idle about the same proportion of time as those shown. 

In the electrical power-house, the stopping of a motor does not mean 
the ceasing to draw steam from a boiler, for there are other motors 
which impose their load partly on the boiler, — it causes a slight change 
in the steaming rate instead of a reduction to almost nothing. There 
is a good deal of dead movement expended by the steam locomotive 
in going back and forth to coal chutes, water stations, cinder pits, etc., 
which burns coal without any monetary return. There is other dead 
movement (which the electric locomotive or motor car will obviate), 
due to the necessity of switching around trains at terminals and due 
to less mobility of the steam locomotive. With the steam locomotive, 
a cold boiler and engine plant must be heated each morning and a warm 
boiler allowed to grow cold at night. Where no effort is made to utilize 
the heat left in the boiler at night, the amount lost is approximately 
the coal needed to raise steam each morning (together with the attendant 
labor). Where an effort is made to utihze the heat, unit efficiency 
cannot be obtained. Even with the maximum possible results, there 
will be lost the heat contained in the iron of the locomotive. Against 
these, an electric locomotive draws power when it runs and cuts it off 
when the necessity ceases; for the starting and stopping throughout 
the day, little alteration in the steaming of the power-house boilers 
is effected, — some boilers at the power-house are kept going day and 
night for weeks; the others are only shut down with the variations of 
requirement for the entire stretch of road and not the fluctuations of 
an individual motor. 

4. The greater capability of electric tractors for service will enable 
the capital invested in them to be in service a larger proportion of the 
time, so that the greater interest charges thereon (from greater first 
cost) will be partly offset. There will be saved to usefulness for the 
electric machine the time lost by a steam locomotive in raising steam, the 
time in going back and forth to water tanks, fuel stations, etc., the time 
saved in switching and similar dead movement, the difference in time 
spent in shops for repairs by steam and electric locomotives. This 
latter, coupled with the instant availability for service of electric locomo- 
tives, will also allow of a smaller reserve number being kept on hand. 



70 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Mr. W. J. Wilgus (Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., March 18, 1908) gives 
some figures regarding the electric operation of the New York Central 
wherein is shown for the electric working under examination, a saving of 

18% in dead time for repairs and inspection. 
6% in locomotive ton-mileage in hauling service. 
11% in locomotive ton-mileage in switching service. 
18% in locomotive ton-mileage in road service. 

Mr. W. S. Murray (Elec. Engineer, N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R.) is cred- 
ited in the Street Railway Journal of November 16, 1907, with the 
statement that the electric locomotives, do yard switching in one-half 
the time of steam locomotives. 

The Street Railway Journal (October 5, 1907), speaking of the opera- 
tion of the New York Central's New York terminal by electricity, said 
that the total number of movements in the yard, July 2, 1907, not only 
for regular trains but also for switching, showed a decrease of about 
35%. On the same day delays were decreased from a total of 443 
minutes per day to 122 minutes. 

Steam locomotives are dead for repairs about one month in the year, 
or, say 8% of the time. Mr. Brinckerhoff has published a statement 
to the effect that the Metropolitan Elevated (Chicago) cars, during 
1905-1906, were available for service 97% of the time, each working 
3,500 miles per month. With a slightly smaller mileage the Buffalo 
& Lockport electric locomotives are out of commission for repairs five 
days in the year, or 1.37%. 

On the Valtellina, according to Bela Valatin, 35,120 miles per annum 
are made with each electric vehicle, while the average steam locomotive 
mileage was only 17,213. An examination of the motor cars after a 
100,000-mile period of service, disclosed no necessity for changing bear- 
ings or renewing bushings. 

The New York subway cars are overhauled when they make an 
average mileage of 65,000. 

On the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Elevated line, the annual train 
mileage per locomotive under steam in 1898 was 37,110 against an 
annual train-mileage of 40,140 in 1905 per motor car under electric 
operation. 

How electric traction makes the full equipment available in an 
emergency was shown by the Northeastern Railway of England in 
1904, when the British Channel squadron dropped into Newcastle, and, 
because of the rush of crowds to see the spectacle, put a sudden and 
extraordinary demand upon their electrified section. The first day, 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 71 

86 out of 89 cars owned were run. The second day 89 cars (the entire 
equipment) were run from 5 p. m. to 11 p. m., and not a single break- 
down was experienced. 

5. Some saving in train labor will be effected by electric operation. 
The labor of the firemen will be saved. The dispensing of the second 
man on the motor vehicle seems to be open to argument. On the 
multiple-unit trains propelled by motor cars in the train, such as would 
be applicable to suburban service, we believe the dispensing of the 
motorman is practically universal. In electric-locomotive propulsion, 
practice is divided. The Baltimore & Ohio, for instance, is running 
electric locomotives through the Baltimore tunnel with no helper for the 
motorman. The trains into the New York terminal carry a helper on 
the electric locomotive. After the service has been longer continued 
he may be taken off — that remains to be seen. Except as an addi- 
tional lookout, his presence seems unnecessary. With the controller 
of the locomotive equipped with the so-called ^'dead man's handle," 
in case of any disablement of the motorman the spring would throw the 
handle to the ^'off" position and the locomotive be brought to a stop. 
An excellent way of working is carried out on the Valtellina road in 
Italy. The locomotive motorman has no helper, but the conductor is 
required to familiarize himself with the working of the locomotive so 
as to be able to bring the train to its destination in case the motorman 
becomes ill or otherwise incapacitated. He is even required to change 
places with the motorman at times. Heft's figures on train labor per 
train mile on certain electrified branches of the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford railroad are as follows: 

Berlin Branch $0 . 18 

Highland Division .027 

Nantasket Beach Branch .0829 

New Canaan Branch . 063 

Steam Operation (about) 0.12 

That the railroad, through electrification, would lose the services 
of its firemen whom it had trained to its employ, would not necessarily 
follow. A few of them would be required for the electrical power-house. 
The electrification of a terminal would take considerable time and a 
good many who are firemen at its inception will pass to the grade of 
engineer and qualify for running electric locomotives by the time of its 
completion. In the elapsed time, others (because of their right to 
preference through their years of service) would have a chance to be 
taken care of through the regularly occurring vacancies at other points 



72 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

than Chicago. Also, a considerable augmentation of suburban traffic 
is to be expected and the present firemen on terminal service will be 
needed to act as motormen. That they will want it, is probable, as 
the work is cleaner and Ughter than firing a steam locomotive. That it 
would be preferable to have the present engineers and firemen qualify 
to run the electric trains is generally undisputed, since they are famihar 
with the track and with existing operating conditions and train rules. 

6. A certain proportion of the shriakage in coal between the car 
and the boiler grate would be saved by electrical working. Every 
handling means a small percentage loss. With the coal dehvered at 
the power-house and stored imder cover above the boilers, this chance 
of loss is minimized. 

A saving in fuel-handling cost will ensue from electrical working, 
since the coal consimiption will be cut in half. Where there is a further 
saving lies ui the fact that modern power-plants handle their coal and 
ashes by specially designed conveying machinery. The coal is dumped 
or shovelled into a hopper underneath the car; belt or bucket convey- 
ors convey it into the crusher and to a bin above the boilers. It is fed 
by gravity upon the grates. The ashes drop into pockets beneath the 
boilers, whence they are tapped to a conveyor which dehvers them into 
a hopper above the coal cars. When the coal in a car is unloaded, the 
ashes are dropped into it from the hopper above. It is about as cheap 
a way to handle coal and ashes as can be devised. Locomotive coaling 
varies from shooting the coal to the tender from pockets filled from 
elevated tracks to moving it several times from place to place by shov- 
elling. In the smaller stations the bulk of the crew's time must neces- 
sarily be put in to no useful piu-pose. (At such a station as the one 
under the Randolph Street viaduct over the Illinois Central tracks). 
Taking the stations collectively, allowing for lost time, labor, superin- 
tendence, tools, and repair of stations, iaterest on plant iQvestment, and 
dead mileage saved, it would seem that 50 cents per ton would be a fair 
overall allowance for the expense in Chicago of imloading coal and 
placiQg it upon the tender of the locomotive. 

7. A large proportion of the round-house labor other than that 
occupied iq coaling and ash removal, would be released by electrical 
operation. This would come, first, because* the substitution of motor 
cars for locomotives in suburban service and the greater mileage effi- 
ciency of electric locomotives, would decrease the number of units 
requiring attention; second, because the imits would be less dii'ty and 
the dirt more readily removed; third, because many of the parts requir- 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 73 

ing daily attention on a steam locomotive would have no equivalent 
part in an electric locomotive; and fourth, certain parts requiring daily 
attention in a steam locomotive would be replaced by equivalent parts 
in an electric locomotive requiring only occasional attention. 

8. The cost of operation of water stations (amoimting to about 
8-10 cent per train mile) would be entirely saved by electric work- 
ing. 

9. The interest charges upon investment in water and fuel stations 
and the difference in round-house plant required, should be deducted 
from the charge against electrical operation. While such plants are 
now on hand this would not effect an absolute saving of this amount. 
As the terminal demands in Chicago increase, an absolute saving of the 
interest charges upon the amounts which it would be necessary to ex- 
pend for their extension, but for electrification, would be had. After 
a reasonable time for their extinction, the capital amounts at present 
invested would also afford an absolute amount passed to saving on 
interest charges. As many of the round-houses and plants of this char- 
acter about Chicago are fifteen or twenty years old, the sinking fimds 
carried against them should have already extinguished much of their 
value. Of course, a portion of these interest savings will appear as 
charges against coal, ash, and water plant inside the power-house, but 
its better shielding from the weather and its lessened first cost through 
reduction in required capacity and centralization, will make interest and 
maintenance charges less. These will appear in the general power-house 
charge so, for purposes of calculation, the entire amount now charged 
under steam operation may be set in the column of savings. 

10. The greater simplicity in the care and repair of the electrical 
locomotive (with the exception of its motor and control apparatus) 
will possibly enable certain of the maintenance work to be done by 
ordinary labor which now requires skilled labor. This will have its 
value as insurance if not as a positive saving, for it is easier to secure 
common labor, at times when labor is at a premium, than skilled labor. 
It is to be reasonably expected that (the work being cleaner) greater 
returns will be secured from labor employed. Between a clean job and 
a dirty one, the better class of workmen will choose the clean one — pro- 
vided the pay is equal. A better class of workmen will be attracted. 
Further, put an efficient man in a dirty place to work — physical dis- 
comfort mars his efficiency, revulsion saps his conscientiousness. So 
we should expect for the railroad that (a) their better class of laborers 
and workmen around the terminal should increase their efficiency; 



74 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

(6) a sufficient niunber of desirable men should be attracted to allow 
of weeding out the undesirable ones. 

11. Very cold weather interferes with steam- train schedules, thereby 
upsetting terminal arrangements, and, besides, causing public dissat- 
isfaction, running up bills for extra labor and incidental expenses. 
This comes from the chilling of the boiler and of the air supplied to it 
to such an extent that speed cannot be held. As the electric locomo- 
tive or motor car has no boiler, and the cooler the motors are kept the 
better, the abnormally cold weather becomes an advantage rather than 
otherwise. Thus, in the very severe winter of 1904-1905, the steam 
suburban trains into the Grand Central station at New York came into 
the terminal so habitually late that public indignation was aroused 
and the press set up an insistent clamor. The elevated railway, elec- 
trically run, maintained its service. In response to complaint lodged 
last winter of the very poor service on the New London & Northern 
operated by the Central Vermont Railway Company, the Central Ver- 
mont company gave as one of their reasons for the delays, in an official 
document to the Connecticut Railway Commissioners ' ' The extreme 
cold weather and other conditions arising from the severe winter, all 
of which had much congested its traffic." 

Sleet and snow will affect the electric locomotive as well as the 
steam one. 

Under (d) we find: 

1. Per pound weight on drivers and per unit horse-power supplied, 
the electric motor vehicle gives a greater tractive effort than the steam 
locomotive. This is because of the even torque throughout a revolu- 
tion, maintained by an electric motor. It requires more effort to start 
locomotive drive-wheels slipping upon the rails than to maintain it. 
Consequently, the more uniform our torque, the higher our co-efficient 
of adhesion. The angularity of the connecting rod, the variation of 
pressure in the cyhnder during the stroke, and the inertia of moving 
parts, make a large variation between the maximum and the mean 
crank effort exerted by a simple steam engine. The ratio is 1.5 to 2.5, 
depending upon circumstances. With high steam pressures, low cut- 
offs, short strokes, and high speeds, the maximum effort will exceed 
three times the mean effort. With two cyhnders with crank-pins at 
right angles, as in a locomotive, the combined-crank-effort diagram will 
still show the maximum crank effort (or torque) to be 134 to 1 3^ times 
the mean. Owing to the multiplicity of coils in a motor armature, the 
torque curve thereof will exhibit a superposition of a multiplicity of 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 



75 



modified sine curves, each a fraction of a period in advance of the fore- 
going; the resultant curve being a series of wavelets of shallow depth 
and the ratio of maximum to mean being so near unity that it may be 
so considered for all practical purposes. 








//C 




^y^ 






./\ \ 


r, 


/ 


c 


/ 




y 




\ 

\ 
\ 


V 








// 


\ v^ 




v^ 






\^// 


\x^ 


J 


' ^^*-*.,._____ 






'Y 


Y^ \ 


/ 








// 


\ \ 


/ 








// 


\ s 


/ 








// 




/ 








^ 


\ s 














/ 






\ X--'^^ 






I 










\v ? 




^^„^-^ 




' __,' 


















^^ 






-\ 







CRANK EFFORT DIAGRAM 



The curve marked ^^A" above (taken from Urwin) exhibits (by 
the length of the intercept between inner circle and outer curve) 
variations in crank effort of a compound engine with cranks at 90 
degrees. The sketch curve B C is a portion of a torque curve of a 
motor as it would be expected to appear, the number of convolutions 
being largest with the greatest number of coils in the armature. 



Mean 




MOTOR TORQUE 



76 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Because of the difference in torque characteristics, the electric loco- 
motive can exert about 15% more tractive effort. Normally they are 
rated at 22 to 25% weight on drivers, following steam locomotive 
practice, but tests have developed as high as 35% adhesion. 

2. The steam locomotive is compelled to haul a great deal of dead 
weight throughout the day, in the shape of tender, fuel and water, and 
weight of locomotive not carried on the drive-wheels. This forms a, 
large proportion of the weight of the train in suburban service and an 
appreciable proportion in other kinds of service. The steam locomo- 
tive carries only 40 to 60% of its weight on the drivers and there is, 
thus, only this proportion available for tractive effort. In the case of 
multiple-unit trains, this being the form generally adopted for handling: 
suburban traffic, the entire weight of electrical equipment is borne on 
the driving axles, so that every pound of weight in the train is available 
for traction. In addition, the motor vehicle has the same body as the 
trailing cars and is available for carrying passengers. In the case of 
through passenger trains, and freight trains, it is necessary to handle 
them with electric locomotives in an electrified system. T^Hiile it is- 
possible to carry the entire weight of the electric locomotive on motor 
axles and while this was at first advocated and a number of electric 
locomotives have been so constructed, it seems to be the consensus of 
opinion at present that it is necessary to design the under body of the 
locomotive somewhat similar to steam locomotives and sacrifice a por- 
tion of the tractive effort. It is evidently best to make the same pro- 
vision as regards leading and trailing trucks, as has been found best in 
steam locomotive practice; otherwise, a tendency to '^nosing" with 
consequent spread rails results and, for the purposes of steadiness and 
safety, it is necessary to sacrifice a portion of the theoretical advantages. 
At the same time, if no better disposition of the weight can be obtained 
than with the steam locomotive, we would still save the weight of the 
tender, amounting to from 40 to 70 tons. 

Following is a table giving the general data of representative subur- 
ban locomotives used on American railways, taken from Engineering 
News, February 16, 1905: 

Tank Locomotives for Suburban Traffic 

Railways Cen. Ry., N. J. C. & E. C, B. & Q. 

Class 2-6-2 2-6-6 0-6-2 

Tank Side Rear Rear 

Dri^dng Wheels 5^3" 5' 3'' 4' 9" 

Front truck wheels 3' 2' 6" 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 



77 



Railways Cen. Ry., N. J. 

Rear truck wheels 3' 6" 

Wheel-base, driving 14' 

Wheel-base, total 31' 8" 

Total length 

Weight on drivers 129,000 lbs. 

Weight on front truck. . . 21,900 lbs. 

Weight on rear truck 39,000 lbs. 

Weight total 189,900 lbs. 

Cyhnders 18 x 26 ins. 

Valves Slide 

Boiler, diameter 4' 10^" 

Boiler, pressure 200 lbs. 

Fire-box 109 x 72 ins. 

Tubes, number 249 

Tubes, diameter 2" 

Tubes, length 13' 

Heat surface; tubes 1695 sq. ft. 

Heat surface; total 1834.6 sq. ft. 

Grate area 54 . 5 sq. ft. 

Water, gallons 3000 

Coal, tons 5 

Tractive power 22,700 lbs. 

Railways C, R. I. & P. 

Class 2-6-6 

Tank Rear 

Driving wheels 5' 3^^" 

Front truck wheels 2' 6" 

Rear truck wheels 2' 9" 

Wheel-base, driving 13' 4" 

Wheel-base, total 21' 4" 

Total length 49' 7" 

Weight on drivers 107,000 lbs. 

Weight on front truck. . 19,700 lbs. 

Weight on rear truck. . . . 68,000 lbs. 

Weight, total 194,700 lbs. 

Cyhnders 18 x 24 ins. 

Valves SHde 

Boiler, diameter 4' 10" 

Boiler, pressure 160 lbs. 

Fire-box 1013^ x 33 ins. 

Tubes, number 240 

Tubes, diameter 2 ins. 

Tubes, length 11' 1" 

Heat surface; tubes 1226 sq. ft. 

Heat surface; total 1384 sq. ft. 

Grate area 23.26 sq. ft. 

Water, gallons | 2600 

Coal, tons 4 ^ 

Tractive power 



C. &E. 


C, B. & Q. 


2' 6" 


3' 


12' 9" 


14' 4" 


20' 3" 


22' 5" 


46' llj^" 


37' 10" 


95,000 lbs. 


94,000 lbs. 


14,000 lbs. 




62,000 lbs. 


19,000 lbs. 


171,000 lbs. 


113,000 lbs. 


18 X 24 ins. 


17 X 22 ins. 


SHde 


SHde 


4' 8" 


4' 3M" 


150 lbs. 


160 lbs. 


90 X 42 ins. 


72 X 42 ins. 


247 


194 


2" 


2" 


11' 


11' 


1360 sq. ft. 


980 sq. ft. 


1484 sq. ft. 


1064 sq. ft. 


29.2 sq. ft. 


21 sq. ft. 


2450 


1650 


5 


2-y2 


111. Cent. 


Long Island 


2 4-6 


2-6-2 


Rear 


Side 


4' 83^" 


5' 3" 


2' 9" 


3' 


2' 9" 


3' 


6' 10" 


14' 


32' 7" 


31' 8" 


43' W 




72,000 lbs. 


130,365 lbs. 


17,500 lbs. 


23,910 lbs. 


76,500 lbs. 


34,540 lbs. 


166,000 lbs. 


188,815 lbs. 


17 X 24 ins. 


18 X 26 ins. 


SHde 


SHde 


4' 9" 


5' 


150 lbs. 


200 lbs. 


95H X 347/8 ins. 




200 


249 


2 ins. 


2 ins. 


10' 10" 


13' 


1134.40 sq.ft. 


1684.0 sq. ft 


1250.83 sq. ft. 


1821.4 sq. ft 


23.00 sq. ft. 


54.5 sq. ft. 


2500 


2400 


6 


5 


16,570 lbs. 





I 



78 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Railways N. Y. Central Phila. & Reading 

Class 2-6-6 2-6-4 

Tank Rear Rear 

Driving wheels 5' 3'' 5' 1%'' 

Front truck wheels 2' 6" 2' 6'' 

Rear truck wheels 2' 6" 2' 6'' 

Wheel-base driving 15' 12' 6" 

Wheel-base total 35' 10" 30' 9" 

Total length 48' 13^" 

Weight on drivers 128,000 lbs. 120,860 lbs. 

Weight on front truck 24,000 lbs. 19,120 lbs. 

Weight on rear truck 64,000 lbs. 61,720 lbs. 

Weight, total 216,000 lbs. 201,700 lbs. 

Cyhnders 20 x 24 ins. 20 x 24 ins. 

Valves Piston Shde 

Boiler, diameter 5' 9" 5' 6" 

Boiler, pressure 200 lbs. 200 lbs. 

Firebox 92^ x 88J^ ins. 105 x 94 ins. 

Tubes, number 365 447 

Tubes, diameter 2 ins. 1 J^ ins. 

Tubes, length 12' 9" 

Heat, surface; tubes 2275 .0 sq. ft. 1825 . 5 sq. ft. 

Heat surface; total 2458.0" " 68.5 " " 

Grate area 56.6 " '' 68.5 " " 

Water, gallons 3700 3000 

Coal, tons 5 3M 

Tractive power 27,000 lbs. 28,000 lbs. 

Take the case of the suburban service on the Illinois Central, which 
is familiar to most people around Chicago. The total weight of their 
suburban locomotive is 166,000 lbs., of which the weight on the drivers 
is 72,000 lbs., or only 43.5% of the weight is available for traction. 

Take the case of the Woodlawn local trains which in general are com- 
posed each of two 65' steel cars, seating 120 passengers and weighing 
78,000 lbs. — the steam train weighs: 

Locomotive r:\ 83 tons * '"" 

Cars 78 " 

Total 161 " 

If we take the same car bodies and trucks and equip them with two 
General Electric 66-A motors to each car, we shall add about 103^ tons 
for the complete electrical equipment for each car, or 21 tons for the 
train, these motors having a rated horse-power of 500 and a tractive 
effort of 17,900 lbs. (which compares very closely to the 16,570 lbs. 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 79 

tractive power of the locomotive) at 260 amperes input and 500 
volts. The electric train will then weigh: 

Coaches 78 tons 

Electrical equipment 21 " 

Total r99 " 

against 161 tons for steam, or only 61.5% of the weight hauled with the 
same seating capacity. 

Take the case of four car trains such as nm on the express service 
to South Chicago, Blue Island, etc., during the middle of the day. On 
these trains an ordinary suburban car is hauled, 51' long, weighing 
38,000 lbs., and seating 56 passengers. The steam train weighs 

Coaches 4x19 76 tons 

Locomotive 83 " 

Total 159 " 

The electric train weighs 

Coaches 4 x 19 76 tons 

Electrical equipment, 2 motor cars only 21 '' 

Total "97 '' 

or the electrical train of the same seating capacity weighs 61% of the 
steam train. Thus a substitution of electrical working on the Illinois 
Central suburban service would give the same passenger capacity and 
require the hauling of only three-fifths of the weight. As the Illinois 
Central suburban service has a daily mileage of about 3,500 train miles, 
there would be a daily ton-mileage haul saved on suburban service of 
217,000 ton miles. The adoption of electricity would mean a power 
consumption of approximately two-thirds the present, or that, with 
the same power consumption, approximately 50% more trains could 
be run. 

Take the case of trains requiring locomotive haulage. The Atlantic 
type of engine (New York Central 3,000), has a total weight of 160 
tons, the weight of the engine alone being 100 tons and the weight on 
drivers 55 tons. The horse-power is 1,360 and a maximum tractive 
effort of 33,500 lbs. 

In a Pacific- type locomotive, total weight 175 tons, the weight of 



80 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

the engine alone is 110 tons, the weight on the drivers 67 tons. The 
horse-power 1,640, maximum traction effort 27,500 lbs. 

The New York Central's famous American-type engine No. 999, 
weighs 102 tons, the engine alone weighing 62 tons, and the weight on 
drivers being 42 tons. 

The New York Central's electric locomotive weighs 943^ tons, of 
which 683^ tons is borne on the drivers. These engines are of 2,200 
horse-power with a 3,300 horse-power overload capacity and a total 
maximum tractive effort of 33,000 lbs. 

The electric locomotive is thus seen to be much lighter in total 
weight; in the case of the New York Central to have a larger proportion 
of total weight borne on the drivers; to have a higher horse-power and 
a very high maximum tractive effort. 

If we take the case of an equivalent tractive effort of around 30,- 
000 lbs. to correspond to the Pacific-type steam locomotive, we find the 
Paris-Orleans electric locomotive (so rated) weighs only 55 tons, or 
less than the weight of the tender of the Pacific-type locomotive. 
The electric locomotive also has less concentration of weight on each 
driving axle, owing to its even distribution of weight; in the case of the 
New York Central, the total number of pounds per driving axle being 
47,000 for steam and 35,500 for the electric, — according to Mr. Wilgus. 

In the case of a train of six standard coaches weighing 86,000 lbs. 
each, the weight of the steam train becomes 

Coaches 258 tons 

Locomotive 160 " 

Total "418 " 

and of the electric train: 

Coaches 258 tons 

Locomotive 943^ tons 

Total d52y2 " 

or the electric train only weighs 84% of the weight of the steam train. 
Take the case of one of the heavier trains run by the Illinois Central. 
Suppose that this train carries three baggage, mail, and express cars, a 
coach smoker, a day coach, a chair car, two Pullmans, and one diner. 
The total weight of the steam train would be: 

6 Coaches are equivalent to 258 tons 

SPuUmans" " '* 150 |'^ 

Locomotive 160 



Total 568 



u 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 81 

and of the electric train 

6 Coaches are equivalent to 258 tons 

3 Pullmans " " " 150 " 

Locomotive 943^2 tons 

Total 5023^ " 

or the electric train only weighs S8.5% of the steam train. 

This reduction in weight induces toward less power consumption 
in two directions. In the first place, it makes the train of a given pas- 
senger capacity of less weight per passenger, and it also makes the train 
of a heavier weight per linear foot. AspinalFs experiments show that 
in the case of long freight trains of similar weight and similar speeds, 
the loaded and shorter train showed a greatly reduced tractive effort 
in pounds per ton weight of train required to move the train, over that 
required for the longer, empty train. In the case of suburban trains, 
in addition to getting rid of much of the weight of the locomotive, we 
should also get rid of a disproportionate consumption through doing 
away with the locomotive altogether. The head resistance of the train 
will, of course, be somewhere near the same, but a good many of the 
mechanical and other losses belonging to the locomotive, will be done 
away with. The large amount of power absorbed by the steam loco- 
motive is brought out by Mr. Aspinall in his celebrated paper on train re- 
sistance. We quote him as follows : 

" In order to see how much power the locomotive absorbed, as com- 
pared with the train, a certain number of experiments had been tried 
on the Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, and it had been found that 
the ten- wheeled engine (No. 1392) absorbed 34% of the total horse- 
power. Mr. W. M. Smith (Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs., 1898, p. 605) had 
given the results of his experiments as about 36% of the total horse- 
power; and Mr. Druitt Halpin had stated (Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs., 
1889, p. 150) that the Eastern Railway of France had found that the 
engine absorbed 57% of the total horse-power developed; while Dr. P. 
H. Dudley gave it at 55.6%, and Mr. Barbier at 48%. Probably 34% 
or 36% was about the right percentage, the other figures being much 
too high; at any rate, the experiments referred to in the paper rather 
pointed to that conclusion, though, of course, the actual figure depend- 
ed upon the load behind the engine." (Aspinall, Proc. of Institution 
of Civil Engineers, 1901.) 

3. The employment of electrical locomotives or of motor cars, per- 
mits of a larger interchangeability of parts and a more efficient hand- 



82 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

ling of spares, than is at present possible. This comes because a great 
deal of electrical material is more or less ahke and particularly because 
nearly all of the electrical parts do not have to depend so much upon 
closeness of fit as locomotive parts. Thus, in the majority of instances, 
a part may be renewed in an electrical macliine simply by inserting 
the part as it comes from the manufacturer, while engine parts usually 
require more or less fitting and a worn part cannot be taken from one 
engine and put to working in another, as a general rule. 

4. The higher mileage capacity allowable with electrical apparatus 
has already been touched upon. 

5. Under electrical working, there is theoretically no limit to the 
train load which can be handled, except the draw-bars of the cars. If 
it is desired to handle very heavy trains, manufacturers of electrical 
apparatus are prepared to furnish locomotives with as many axles pro- 
vided with motors as needed or, what is a better arrangement, to furnish 
locomotives made up of multiple units, all units controlled simultan- 
eously from the cab of one locomotive by one control in the hands of 
one operator. A train can be either double-headed, or these imits dis- 
tributed throughout the train. One pecidiar availabihty in electrical 
handling of heavy trains comes from doing away with the limitations 
of capacity due to man-power or steaming-power of the boiler. Steam 
locomotives of very high power can usually hold their rate for only a 
short time, because they are unable, either through lack of boiler ca- 
pacity or lack of abihty of the fireman to stand the pace, to supply the 
maximum requirement of steam. It was a matter of personal obser- 
vation with us that, in the case of the large mountain locomotives used 
on the Santa Fe, on the mountain runs between Trinidad, Colorado, 
and Raton, New Mexico, and between Raton and Las Vegas, the fire- 
man was unable to keep up the rate of steaming as coal was used toward 
the back of the tender, and it was customary whenever possible, to 
pick up a tramp and carry him on the locomotive to throw the coal 
down to the fireman, in order to get around this. 

In an electric locomotive, provided the working conductor is suit- 
abty designed, the locomotive will maintain its output to the end of the 
run, this taking for granted, of course, that in the case of a direct current 
locomotive, the locomotive is chosen of proper power so that the dis- 
turbing element of heated resistance-grids will not interfere. In some 
cases this abihty to handle heav^^ loads has been the cause of electrifi- 
cation. Thus, at the Sarnia Tunnel on the Grand Trunk, considerable 
difficulty was had in handling freight through the timnel with steam 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 83 

locomotives. Under steam operation, freight trains had to be cut in 
two in order to pull them through the tunnel. The timnel has been 
electrified and the trains are now sent through in their entirety, the 
capacity of the tunnel being estimated to be increased from 12,000 
1000-ton trains per year, to 35,000 1000-ton trains per year. 

6. The flexibility of multiple-unit operation makes electrification 
extremely desirable in handling suburban traffic. The coal consumption 
of a suburban locomotive will not greatly vary when hauling a four- 
car train from that when hauling a two-car train, whereas, with elec- 
trical operation, the power consumption of a two car-train is but little 
more than one-half of that of a four-car train. It thus becomes possible 
to fit the train length absolutely to the demands. If, when a two-car 
train is needed, two cars can be run, or if ten or twelve cars are needed 
in a train, ten or twelve cars can be coupled together, using due propor- 
tions of motor cars, and run as a train, it will be possible during the 
middle of the day when demands are light, — instead of running a 
six-car train at half-hour intervals, say, to run three two-car trains at 
ten-minute intervals with very nearly the same expense. This will be 
a good deal of accommodation to the public and will meet its return 
in increased travel. If the interval between trains is too far extended, 
people will take to the surface lines rather than wait for trains, while 
a more frequent service would insure continual patronage of the sub- 
urban line. Similarly, the congestion during rush hours can be taken 
care of by doubling the number of coaches and utilizing the same crew. 
Experience has proved that with electric operation, it is possible to run 
more cars to a train than under steam operation, and that it is also 
necessary to run more cars to a train in order to take care of the crowd 
attracted. Thus, on the Manhattan Elevated, 5.3 cars to a train are 
run against 3.8 under steam operation. On the South Side Elevated 
six or seven-car trains are run against four-car trains under steam oper- 
ation. On the Long Island Railway the standard train to Rockaway 
Beach was a six-car train under steam operation, while present obser- 
vation leads us to the conclusion that a ten-car train is nearer the stand- 
ard now. At any rate, ten-car trains are frequently run. 

7. The more rapid acceleration available from electrical working 
permits of reduced running time with consequent greater mileage. At 
present steam locomotives accelerate at a rate, for freights, of from 
one-tenth to three- tenths mile per hour per second; passenger trains 
from two-tenths to five-tenths, and occasionally as high as seven-tenths. 
Electric locomotives accelerate at about six-tenths mile per hour per 



84 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

second, while multiple-unit trains usually accelerate at rates between 
one and two miles per hour per second, it being practicable to accelerate 
under electrical working at rates of 2)^ to 3 miles per hour per second, 
but hardly desirable. 

Take the case of a steam road operating a train scheduled to 30 miles 
per hour between stops, and with one stop every two miles. An accel- 
eration of li^ miles per hour per second would give a ratio of maximum 
to mean load at the axles of over 10 to 1, and would entail very poor 
economy. This acceleration, however, is nothing extraordinary in 
electrical working and is easily attained under practicable conditions. 
The MetropoUtan Elevated uses an acceleration of 1 . 64 miles per hour 
per second, according to Dawson; while the Subway accelerations vary 
between 1^ to 2, depending upon the character and weight of train. 
This increased available acceleration has brought, in almost every in- 
stance, an increase in speed at which the trains are run. Thus, in the 
various elevated systems, schedule speeds have been raised under elec- 
trical operation from those under steam, as follows: 

Steam Electric 

[ Lake Street Elevated 12 . 5 15 

, Manhattan Elevated 10 . 1 15 

Brooklyn Rapid Transit 11.5 15.8 

South Side Elevated 13.08 14.95 

Heft gives the following figures for the operation of the Nantasket 
Beach electrified line of the New York, New Haven & Hartford rail- 
road: 

North Bound Branch of the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. 

Length No. of Schedule Average 

of Line Stations Time Speed 

Steam, 1894 6 . 95 miles 10 25 to 35 min. 16 . 7 to 11 . 9 m. p. h. 
Electric, 1897 6.95 " 16 21 " 19.8 m. p. h. 

The headway on the Manhattan Elevated was reduced from 70 sec- 
onds to 33 seconds because of the better acceleration and more perfect 
control afforded by electrical working. The Long Island Railway on 
putting on its electrical service, cut five minutes from the rimning time 
from Rockaway Park to Brooklyn. The North Eastern in its New- 
castle electrification, cut the running time 25% upon the inauguration 
of its electrical service. The Lancashire and Yorkshire on its suburban 
nms out of Liverpool cut the running time from 54 minutes down to 37 
minutes in one instance, and from 25 minutes to 17 minutes in another. 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 85 

8. Switching under electrical working would be considerably reduced. 
In the case of suburban trains coming into a terminal, instead of the 
locomotive having to switch out from behind a train and up to the head 
of it to get out, the employment of multiple unit trains requires no move- 
ment, the motorman merely taking the control handle to the other end 
of the train. In the case of the operation of through passenger trains 
into terminals, the customary passage of the train to or from the storage 
yards, attached to a switching engine, and the proceeding of the regular 
engine to the station from another point, can probably be done away 
with by having the passenger locomotive make up its own train. If 
the routine should not be this, the adoption of a routine such as is in 
force in the New York Central terminal is allowable, whereby the elec- 
tric locomotive from an incoming train takes its position at the head 
of an outgoing train immediately after the train it comes in on comes 
to rest, and is then immediately available for outgoing service, instead 
of having to go to the round-house and back and consume a couple of 
hours, as was the case when that terminal was operated by steam. 

In the case of freight switching a good deal of saving in switching 
movement may be expected because of the ability to put the electrical 
locomotive exactly where it is wanted. In spotting it is very often the 
case that the right position of the car means an awkward position for 
stopping the locomotive, and consequently the car runs a little past its 
desired position and two or three attempts have to be made before the 
car is finally located exactly where it is wanted. The electric locomotive 
will start or stop at any position and the car can be spotted at the first 
attempt. With a switching locomotive designed with four or more 
motors under full-series parallel control so as to allow of the minimi- 
zation of rheostatic losses, or with voltage control in alternating current 
locomotives, we shall have a locomotive which is equally efficient at a 
number of variations of load. This will allow of a chance to handle 
light freights as economically as abnormally heavy freight trains and 
will probably lead to an ability, in case of badly congested terminals, 
to haul small trains of cars from the terminals as fast as they are loaded 
out to clearance yards, or will enable a small fast freight service to be 
afforded, which is greatly desired by merchants at present, but im- 
practical to operate. 

9. With electric locomotive trucks similar to steam locomotive 
trucks and with a lessened pound and vibration, it is reasonable to 
expect that the track will be somewhat easier to maintain. On the 
Burgdorf and Thun road, the maintenance is stated to be less than 



86 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

that of similar steam roads. (Tissot, Note sur la Traction Electrique 
des Chemins de Fer.) The supply of abundant auxiliary power should 
work a convenience and allow various labor-saving appliances to be 
installed at freight-houses, machine-shops and other points along the 
road. 

10. The possible better condition of road-bed and a lessened wear 
and tear on rolling-stock should reduce the derangements of traffic 
if electrical operation be adopted. Certainly, in the case of multiple- 
unit suburban trains, the breakdown of the entire train would be im- 
probable, as such trains usually contain several motor cars, and the 
going wrong of one motor car would merely incapacitate that car and 
allow it to be towed in by the others, while a breakdown under steam 
haul of such a train would delay it until help could be sent. We have 
already seen where the delays of trains going into the New York Central 
Grand Central Station had been cut in half, even before the entire ter- 
minal was put under electrical operation. Messrs. Stillwell & Putnam 
(" On the Substitution of Electric Motors for Steam Locomotives,") give 
a record of delays on the Manhattan Elevated from November, 1900, to 
March 1901, under steam operation, and for the corresponding months 
in 1905-6, under electrical operation. The car-mileage per minute delay 
was 2,243 imder steam operation and 4,268 under electrical operation. 
These are very significant figures, because they represent traffic during 
winter months, when the interference of snow and sleet with third-rail 
operation is at its maximum. Later figures of the operation of the 
Interborough Rapid Transit Company, covering records during 1907, 
give an average time-loss per month on the Manhattan Elevated of 
339.7 minutes with the average car miles per minute delay of 16,471. 

While the economies to be effected by electrical working in a terminal 
system where traffic is dense present a very attractive side, it is prob- 
able that electrification to the railroad becomes most desirable from 
another side, — that is, because of the capacity to do a larger business 
under electrification over a given trackage. Ability to do a larger 
business over terminal trackage in places like Chicago, we believe, will 
be admitted as extremely desirable on all sides. The capacity of a 
railroad is the capacity of its terminals, and the trend in Chicago is to 
increasingly tax these terminals so that in the past few years we have 
seen additional trackage put down and additional yards provided to- 
gether with one new terminal station imder way and another planned. 
Increased demand upon terminals may be met in two ways; either by 
increasing the existing plant or by so equipping it as to allow of a larger 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 87 

output with a smaller investment for equipment than for added termi- 
nal space: — namely, to electrify it. This would seem the logical thing 
to do. The railroads do a business with a large burden of fixed charges. 
They do business upon a very close margin — how close, we have just 
seen in a panic the effects of which have not yet passed. It seems al- 
most an unsafe business to the man who is accustomed to working on 
a comfortable margin. The dependable business just balances fixed 
charges, as a usual thing; it is from the fluctuations above the depend- 
able business that the earnings must come. If a fluctuation beyond 
normal, which comes in prosperous years (which is also accompanied by 
a permanent increase) be large, the railroad must increase its invest- 
ment to take care of it. Consequently the annual permanent growth of 
business and the annual permanent increase of fixed charge keep pace, a 
definite percentage ratio persisting. Now if we can take care of the 
annual increase for some time by electrification, at a smaller proportion- 
ate increase than would be the case by installing additional trackage, 
we will cause the operating expenses to become a larger proportion of 
the total and the fixed charges a smaller one. Hence, when business 
gets bad and traffic movements decrease, a larger proportion of the 
charges against earnings will automatically be extinguished than at 
present and the result of the curtailment less severely felt, since operat- 
ing expenses are almost directly proportional to train movement. 

The increased flexibility resultant is also a most valuable character- 
istic in electric traction — indeed so valuable may it be as to outweigh 
all questions of economy. Two great desiderata may be obtained 
with it — the handhng of suburban traffic to tbe best advantage and 
the clearing out of freight yards as fast as freight accumulates, rendering 
possible a more concentrated working of freight terminals and rendering 
possible, perhaps, the establishment of profitable express freight service. 

Suburban traffic may become particularly valuable. It is regular 
and it is dependable. It is doubtful if it will be appreciably affected 
during hard times; and (if it can be profitably developed) it will be 
a great help in tiding over bad periods such as the railroads have just 
passed through. Because of its regularity, properly developed, it 
enables a maximum traffic to be taken care of with a relatively small 
organization. Where it becomes of large volume the effect of circus 
and race-track and similar crowds will not serve to disorganize its work- 
ing as at present, as such crowds will then demand a relatively small 
increase in facilities. Developed to its proper degree, it represents 
bulk transportation, and its development as such is the key to its prov- 



88 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

ing remunerative. It is analogous to a manufacturing business which 
becomes successful because it confines its manufacturing to a few 
standard articles, making them in large quantities with Uttle outlay 
for clerical force or development. Now such traffic is to be especially- 
desired for two reasons: It is a traffic whose increase in receipts is 
faster than the increase in expenses; it is a fixed quantity not affected 
by hard times. Properly safeguarded, it may be expected to increase 
always and not diminish. This, we beheve, is the attractiveness of 
electrification to the EngHsh railways. In England facihties for 
suburban traffic by street cars or interurban fines were not afforded as 
early as in this country, partly because of inertia of promoters, and 
partly because the traffic was already in the hands of the steam rail- 
roads. The steam railroads have awakened to the fact that unless 
they afford the pubfic better facifities than at present, this traffic may 
be taken away from them by other agents, and so, to forestall the growth 
of suburban and interurban electric roads, they have chosen to electrify 
their systems, — announcing that their purpose therein is not so much 
to save money as to make money — that is, by doing a larger business. 

It appearing that electrification possesses imdoubted advantages 
both for the railroad and the pubfic, let us examine where the disad- 
vantages may lie. 

These are usually advanced as being of two kinds — those lying 
with certain conditions which may tend to the derangement or inter- 
ruption of services on certain occasions, and those which offer dangers 
to life and to property. These we befieve to have been greatly mag- 
nified by opponents of electrical traction, and many to be advanced 
without good ground. 

One of the first objections raised to electrical working is that the 
concentration of power at one point makes it more vulnerable to injury 
and makes it possible for an injury to one point of the system to tie up 
the entire working. While the concentration of power at one point 
makes it possible to interrupt the entire system by local injury such 
as a fire, it also largely reduces the number of places at which injury 
may occur, and the single plant involved permits the employment of 
safeguards which it would be prohibitively expensive to employ at a 
number of points. That a fire could occur in the power-house and 
destroy its working is entirely possible, but highly improbable. Large 
power-houses such as would be used for railroad power-stations can be 
constructed almost absolutely fireproof, and, while there are thousands 
of power-plants scattered through the United States, it is very seldom 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 89 

that one is burned and the power-plants that do burn about the country 
are the small ones and not the ones of large fireproof construction. The 
street-railway power-house in Baltimore was about the only building 
for blocks which was not ruined by the fire and the power-house was 
put into service very shortly after the fire. The experience of nu- 
merous power-houses for electrified railroads and for heavy electric 
traction systems in this country and abroad, does not afford a single 
instance of such interruption of service. Some risk must be taken as 
a usual thing in every betterment in working. To refrain from elec- 
trifying roads in Chicago, through the remote possibility of interruption 
because of a fire in the power-house, would be about on a par with 
refraining from entering the city at all because a bridge over one of 
of the rivers in or near the city would constitute a weak point in such 
entrance, and this bridge might be run into by a passing boat and the 
traffic interrupted. It is unlikely, should there be a general electri- 
fication of the railroad terminals of Chicago, that a railroad would 
establish its systems without pmergency connections to the power- 
supply at the other terminals, so that in case of derangement, power 
could be drawn from them. There is also open the arrangement that 
they have in the New York Central electrification, of duplicate power- 
houses at different points in the system, each one capable in times of 
emergency of carrying sufficient overload to tide the system over. 

The objection is brought that cables or other conductors carrying 
the current may become grounded and burn out, thereby cutting off 
the power. This, of course, is likely to happen with any electrical 
system. It has happened on certain circuits of the Commonwealth 
Edison Company; and a manhole explosion once cut off one of the large 
New York power-houses for several hours. Such troubles, however, 
are usually unusual and are largely obviated by installing the more 
important conducting systems in duplicate. Nobody in Chicago would 
think of lighting a store with kerosene lamps for fear that his electric 
power might be shut off because of a gromided main belonging to the 
public-service corporation, and it hardly seems reasonable for the rail- 
roads to defer taking advantages of the opportimities afforded by elec- 
trical traction, because of so small an obstacle as this, — especially 
when in such a case the through trains could come in temporarily under 
their steam locomotives and the people who make use of the suburban 
traffic could probably find other means of reaching home for the time 
being. We do not believe that it would prove any very great factor 
in disarranging suburban traffic, because it has not done so in the case 



90 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

of numerous elevated, subway, and surface-car electric systems through- 
out the world. 

It has been claimed that electric motors are more susceptible to 
derangement than steam locomotives. Their absence of comphcation 
and cleanher working make this seem improbable and the records of 
costs of repair and upkeep certainly do not bear this out. Small defects 
can be better taken care of on the road, with electric motors, than with 
steam locomotives. A motor has a greater capability of limping along 
imder derangement to the end of its run than a locomotive, and in the 
case of multiple-unit trains, the motors on a motor car may be entirely 
out of service, but the other motor cars on the train will serve to carry 
the train into the terminal. We should expect, therefore, fewer inter- 
ruptions to traffic than under steam operation and the experience of 
electrifications of steam and elevated railroads already quoted, bear 
this out. 

Mr. Wilgus, in his paper on the New York Central electrification, 
before the American Society of Civil Engineers, gave the delays of 
the New York Central into its New York terminal as 1.2 minutes per 
thousand train miles under electric working, against 2 minutes imder 
steam working. 

Through the courtesy of Mr. W. S. Murray, Electrical engineer of 
the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, we were enabled to 
see the record of train delays on the New Haven for approximately the 
week preceding our visit. The sheets were practically clean. There 
was one minor delay properly chargeable to electrical working, and 
this was a man failure and not a failure of electrical apparatus. Be- 
fore the New Haven had thoroughly inaugurated its electrical system 
and had overcome the natural hindrances to operation which come 
of the inauguration of any new system (and which come particularly 
when two systems are being operated jointly, as was the case when 
partly under steam and partly under electrical operation) it was criti- 
cized by foes of electrical traction (and of the particular system of 
electrification employed by the New Haven) for certain delays, which 
however, upon investigation have proved largely to have been always 
due to certain troubles (now past) in the power-house, and not out on 
the road itself. Occasionally certain combinations of circumstances 
make trouble in a new power-house for the time being; therefore, this 
trouble on the New Haven is ascribable more to a combination of un- 
favorable circumstances than to an unfavorable system. The New 
Haven has been the most criticized electrification in the country on 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 91 

account of delays, and there has been a disposition of the opponents of 
electrification to rest their case on the New Haven's record. As the 
New Haven's troubles are now overcome and in view of the very satis- 
factory operation which the writer observed for himself, he is inclined 
to believe that the objection is without ground. 

Objection is raised to electrical working because of possible inter- 
ruption of service through electrical storms affecting conductors. It 
is customary now to thoroughly protect these systems by lightning 
arresters, and cases of interruption from these causes have become 
comparatively rare. With a duplicate transmission line, there seems 
little possible danger of interruption from this source. 

The record of the Long Island Railway is illuminative on these 
points. For the care of their high-tension line they have two crews 
consisting of only four men, — this to cover the care of an electrification 
which comprises over 100 miles of electric trackage. The crew consists 
of a foreman, two linemen and the chauffeur of a gasoline car to trans- 
port them from place to place. In 1906, on their high-tension line, 
there were only 69 insulators broken from various causes out of 69,000. 
During this year they had several short circuits due to metallic sub- 
stances being thrown across wires, but no serious trouble. It was 
necessary to replace 250 third-rail insulators a month out of 50,000. 
Their rail- jumper repair gang comprised only two men. In this year 
the chief repairs to third rail, aside from replacing third-rail insu- 
lators, were the replacing of some rail protection boards damaged 
through accident, which two men were able to take care of. 

On the West Jersey and Seashore railway in July, 1907, two high- 
potential insiilators were broken, out of 32,000 on the line, and none 
were broken in May and Jime of that year, — a breakage in three 
months of 6-100 of 1%. In July, 1907, they had 91 broken third-rail 
insulators out of 82,000, or 1-10 of 1% breakage. Their trouble record 
for July, 1907, showed for 125 miles of track, 3 broken third-rail pro- 
tection posts, 11 defective protection boards, 1 defective jumper. In 
June, 1907, it was necessary to replace 34 contact shoes on a car mileage 
of 292,767. There were 59 car defects in this month and 9 detentions 
with a total of 90 minutes from defects or 32,529 car miles per minute 
detention. 

There has been some criticism of electrification because of fancied 
danger to the pubUc and to employees of the road. A careful inves- 
tigation will show that the bulk of the accidents on electrified railroads 
due to coming in contact with electrical apparatus, happened to tres- 



92 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

passers. There does not seem to be very much danger to passengers or 
to employees, provided proper and reasonable care is exercised. 

Mr. Wilgus states: " During the period of a year and a half that 
the working conductors have been energized in the congested initial 
electric zone of the New York Central, not a fatality has occurred 
there to employees or the public primarily due to third-rail or trans- 
mission lines. Three instances have been due to trespassing on the 
transmission line, another to a porter reaching beneath the rail for a 
pack of cards, and one to a prior contributing cause." (Proc. Am. 
Soc. C. E.) 

On the Valtellina line, in the first four years of operation, no one 
was injured on the line by the electrical apparatus. Diu-ing this time 
the only fatality which occurred throughout the system was the killing 
of one of the engineers employed by the contractors installing the 
system, through getting into some of the apparatus at one of the sub- 
stations. 

On the Lancashire and Yorkshire railroad in England, when first 
opened, a number of people were killed through contact with the third 
rail, but after the system was put in working order, for considerably 
over a year there was nothing in the nature of a serious electrical 
shock or accident. 

The Board of Trade returns covering the electrifications in Great 
Britain for 1904-5-6 and to August, 1907, showed 16 killed and 71 
injiu'ed throughout Great Britain. Of the people who were killed in 
the four-year period, 4 were railroad servants and 12 trespassers. Of 
those injured 40 were railroad men, 1 was a passenger, 5 were people 
on business with the railroad, 25 were trespassers. Of these casualties, 
the North Eastern had 8 killed and 28 injured, and the Lancashire and 
Yorkshire had 5 killed and 19 injured. The 16 killed during the fom*- 
year period represent the casualties not only on the electrified railway 
systems in England, but on the various third-rail systems employed 
on elevated, subway, and similar systems throughout Great Britain. 

The Connecticut legislature, shortly before the completion of the 
New Haven electrification, passed a law requiring that no part of a 
railroad equipped to be operated by electricity be opened for public 
travel, unless the company operating same should first obtain a cer- 
tificate from the Board of Railway Commissioners that such railroad, 
or part thereof, was in a ^' suitable and safe condition." Regarding 
the New Haven electrification, the current report of the Conmiission 
states: "After a thorough examination of the system by the full 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 93 

Board, assisted by an electrical expert, we certified that the same was 
in a suitable and safe condition, as required by the statute." 

The report of Mr. Wilham R. C. Corson to the Connecticut Railway 
Commission, which report was presented by them as a part of their 
annual report, states regarding this system: ^'Doubtless experience 
coming from actual operation will disclose weak features and defective 
apparatus and possibly unthought-of hazards may develop, but, as a 
whole, I am unable to conceive of any condition of danger to the trav- 
elling public which can arise from the electrical features of the system 
adopted." 

Criticism has been made of electrical working, because of the acci- 
dent to the New York Central, February 16, 1907, at Woodlawn, when 
the White Plains & Brewster Express, consisting of five cars and two 
electric locomotives, was derailed and 20 passengers killed and 150 
injured; and because of the recent wreck of the White Mountain Ex- 
press on the New Haven. Why a case of too high speed on a 
curve or of spread rails should be laid particularly at the door of electric 
traction, seems hard to imderstand, especially in view of the fact that 
six days after the New York Central accident, the celebrated wreck 
of the Pennsylvania '^ Flyer" occurred, through apparently similar 
causes and with equally fatal results; and wreck after wreck occiured 
through track defects about the same time. It is very probable that 
had a steam train taken the curve on the New York Central at the same 
spot as the electric train and at the same speed, the same accident 
would have occurred; and in the New Haven case, it was apparently 
a case of spread rails, which may have been due to the design of the 
locomotive — but if such was the case, the fault lay not with an electric 
locomotive, but with a locomotive without pilot trucks — that is, the 
fault was mechanical and not electrical. The experience of the New 
Haven, we are told, has been that the effect of the operation of their 
locomotives has been to reduce the number of broken rail joints, (which 
is reasonably to be expected because of lessened vibration) but not to 
decrease the number of spread rails, which we should also expect be- 
cause of probable '^nosing" through lack of pilot trucks on the loco- 
motives. Abnormally high speed may have been a factor in the New 
Haven accident. At the time of our visit to this system, several motor- 
men were being disciplined because of taking curves at too high a 
speed. 

The prediction is sometimes made that in the case of a wreck of 
an electrical train, the wreck will be burned or the passengers elec- 



94 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

trocuted. Undoubtedly, cases have occurred where coUision of electric 
cars has caused a fire which has destroyed the cars. Thus, a fire in 
the New York subway on June 1, 1906, through a collision, burned 
three unoccupied cars. At the same time there have been numerous 
other collisions of electrical trains in which no such action has 
occurred. Thus, at just about the same time, on the Long Island 
Railway, a train of steel motor cars going at high speed, demol- 
ished three freight cars without damage to themselves. Apparently 
the case is about the same as with steam railroads. There are numerous 
steam-railroad wrecks in which the cars are not bm"ned and there are 
others in which the cars and the passengers within them have been 
burned, — such as the Southern Pacific wreck several years ago, be- 
tween Benson and Tucson, Arizona. There are accidents such as the 
accident in the Paris subway shortly after its opening, where an electrical 
train caught fire and a number of passengers were smothered to death 
in the subway, trying to escape. But there are similar steam accidents, 
such as the accident in the Park Avenue Tunnel on the New York 
Central, and the accident on the Grand Trunk in its St. Clair Tunnel, 
in the fall of 1904, before its electrification, when six of the train crew 
were suffocated because of the train breaking in two while passing 
through the tunnel and leaving them amidst gases from which they 
could not escape. 

When all is said, it is probable that the after-effects of a wreck are 
equally hazardous under steam or electrical working. 

Objection has been brought to electrification because of its inter- 
ference in wrecking operations, preventing the throwing of wreckage 
to one side of the track in clearing the track, in cases of third-rail install- 
ation and preventing the use of locomotive cranes in the case of over- 
head construction. While there could be some objection from this score, 
tracks around Chicago are usually in duplicate and permit of wreckage 
being permanently removed instead of piled off to one side, — trains 
passing around the wreck in the mean time. 

Objection has been brought to electrification because of possible 
electrolitic action on surrounding water-pipes etc., and its interference 
with neighboring telegraph and telephone wires. While this danger 
would perhaps exist with an electrified steam road, it exists in greater 
measure with the electric street-car systems, and when it is not a 
deterrent to electrical working there, it should not be with electrical 
working of standard railroads. With their numerous parallel tracks 
and large track-return thus afforded for the current, with the rock- 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 95 

ballast underneath the track forming a very fair insulation, with the 
tracks confined mainly to rights of way which do not carry water pipes 
or public-service wires, and with their elevation above crossing streets 
which carry wires or piping liable to be damaged, — it is doubtful if any 
acute danger of electrolitic action exists and what action there may be 
can certainly be overcome by reasonable precautions. Thus in the case 
of telephone and telegraph wires on existing electrifications where these 
wires are carried close to the conductors, there have been adopted 
means of protection for them which are reported to be amply sufficient. 
On an existing single-phase installation such troubles were entirely 
done away with in adjacent telephone wires by rotating the wires to 
get rid of the electro-magnetic induction and earthing a connection at 
their middle point with a choke coil inserted, which would not permit 
the telephone current to pass. 

It has been urged against electrification of terminals that it will 
produce a great many complications and conflicts in the case of party 
tracks and joint use of terminal facilities. That existing arrangements 
would have to be modified under electrification, nobody doubts, but 
these arrangements have to be modified every time any permanent 
improvement is made by the railroad, and if existing arrangements 
permit of modifications for improvements, such as track elevation, 
different round-house facilities, storage yards, etc., it is hardly reason- 
able to suppose that the necessary modifications of existing contracts 
or agreements could not be made for the proper changes and proportion- 
ing of expenses under electrical working. 

It has been advanced that to electrify the Chicago terminals would 
produce more or less disorganization of the divisions having their 
terminals in Chicago. This would seem to be the most valid objection 
to the electrification. The railroads arrange their divisions, as a usual 
rule, so that certain mileage runs will be made by their employes from 
one end of the division to the other and arrange division plants for 
taking care of locomotives and rolling-stock at the end of their runs. 
But the ideal division arrangement apparently is to have divisions of 
about 100 miles in length each, so that 100-miles mileage can be given 
the train crew on the train between division points. However, this 
is not practically possible, and the length of division varies. If divisions 
were absolutely fixed, their positive unbalancing by taking 15 or 20 
miles from the Chicago end of them might be a serious matter; but 
they are continually changing and every time a new connection or 
branch is opened up, it submits the division to similar unbalancing 



96 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

to what would occur by electrifying the Chicago terminal, — so that 
while this unbalancing might create some confusion at the time, it 
would be nothing new and, having been taken care of in the past, should 
be able to be taken care of in the future. 

The objection is urged that the work incident to electrification 
might lead to a derangement of traffic during the electrification. This 
is hardly tenable in the case of third-rail construction, as it would not 
be necessary to change the road-bed construction, but simply to remove 
about every fifth tie in a similar manner to the removal of ties from 
day to day to replace decayed ones, and to substitute a tie long enough 
to carry the third-rail support at its extremity. The track spacing 
in Chicago in general, owing to the overhang of car bodies, is suffi- 
cient to permit the installation of such a rail. In the case of overhead 
construction, the traffic need not be deranged as the columns for the 
bridge carrying the overhead work can be set at the side of the track 
without interfering with traffic and a transverse girder very quickly 
dropped into place by a wrecking train, as was done in the erection of 
the New Haven bridges. Stringing of the trolley wire is comparatively 
rapid and need not get in the way of traffic. 

The railroads around Chicago in general, are elevated so that they 
would not have to contend with the difficult problems of grade crossings 
or of the prevention of trespass. With most of the Chicago roads 
except for certain tracks at street level, it is simply a question of fitting 
the electrical apparatus to the road and there is none of the physical 
preparation of the right of way which has been necessary in so many 
of the electrifications in other cities. We do not believe that the traffic 
would be materially deranged by electrification, — but if it should be 
it would appear that the present is precisely the time to undertake the 
work before it has to be done under worse conditions in the future. 
Times are dull now, material is cheap, labor is plentiful, traffic is less 
than it will be later on. It seems the ideal time to undertake the work. 

If the work of electrification is undertaken it would seem that a 
complete electrification should be undertaken rather than a partial 
one, else the greater economies cannot be expected. A large part of the 
economy of electrification comes from increased cleanliness and a re- 
duction of dead time and similar wastes. If steam and electrical 
traction are undertaken side by side, the disadvantages of one will 
largely nullify the advantages of the other and the wastes will be multi- 
plied by two. President ^McHenry of the New Haven says: 

^' The simultaneous maintenance of the facilities and working forces 



THE GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIFICATION 97 

for both steam and electric service within the same hmits will be rarely 
profitable, for the reason that a large proportion of expenses incident 
to both kinds of service is retained, without realizing the full economy 
of either. To secure the fullest economy it is necessary to extend a 
new service over the whole length of the existing engine stage or district, 
and to include both passenger and freight trains/' 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 

H. H. EVANS 

We come now to an examination of the general featm-es of the 
various systems which are available for the electrical working of steam 
roads. This examination is of interest principally in enabling us to 
ascertain whether the various mechanical problems which would be 
presented by electrification in Chicago, have been met with in existent 
electrifications, and means adopted to successfully solve them. Some 
examination into the history of electrification systems will be of value, 
in that it will enable us to ascertain whether these systems are of 
long enough standing to have passed from the experimental to the 
practical state. Some examination of the details of the existing systems 
is also advisable, to ascertain whether these systems contain features 
which might be objectionable from the public point of view, — in that 
they might endanger life or property or make the uninterrupted working 
of such a system uncertain. 

The problem of the electrification of standard railways is not a new 
one, but its solution was aimed at in the earlier stages of electrical 
development. Long before electrical working was applied to street- 
railway operation, or even before street railways were in general use, 
experiments were made looking toward electrical working of standard 
railways. Experiments were made in 1834 by Davenport, and shortly 
afterward, Davidson made an experiment upon a Scotch railway. C. 
G. Page, in 1850, received a grant from the United States Congress of 
$30,000 with which to undertake some experiments. He constructed 
an electric locomotive driven by Bunsen batteries and succeeded in 
making a speed of about 18 miles an hour without anything practical 
coming of his experiments. Shortly after this, Pacinnotti advanced 
the idea of using a fixed power-house and aerial conductors, but appar- 
ently nothing was done toward carrying this into practice. Various 
miniature roads and electric locomotives were exhibited at expositions 
and similar places for a number of years, but to the public at large they 
were little more than '' side shows." However, each marked a develop- 
ment in invention and a nearer approach toward types which are found 
practicable to-day. 

Siemens and Halske, Edison, Field, and Daft were all concerned 

98 



^ 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 99 

in work of this kind. In 1884-85, Daft made a study of the electrification 
of the Manhattan Elevated, this road seeking some means of getting 
greater movement over their road than they were able to obtain with 
steam. During these studies a three-mile section of this line was 
equipped with third rail and an electric locomotive used in hauling 
trains. In 1886 Sprague made a study of the same problem and in 
1887 made some tests on the Third Avenue Elevated, installing a third 
rail, 600 volt, direct-current system with motors mounted upon trucks 
of a single coach. In the equipment used in these experiments much 
of the present street-car electric equipment had its birth. 

About this time the possibilities of electrical working of street-rail- 
way lines became apparent and most of the very able inventors tm-ned 
their attention to street railways and work upon heavier roads went 
more or less into the background. Sprague, Vanderpoel, Daft and 
others attacked the problem of street-railway equipment vigorously 
and with the successful working of the street-railway system in Rich- 
mond, installed by Mr. Sprague, the present wonderful development 
of street-railway lines grew by leaps and bounds. 

In 1889 the Manhattan Elevated railwaj^ made further electrification 
experiments. Unfortunately, electric locomotives were contemplated 
which were not so well adapted for this kind of work as the motor-car 
system, so successfully adopted later,— and, because of the showing 
made, the Manhattan Elevated abandoned the idea of electrification 
for the time being. 

The City and South London subway inaugurated in London, Decem- 
ber 18, 1890, a system three miles long, run by electric locomotives, and 
hauled trains of 30 to 40 tons weight. This was a primitive installation, 
but well installed, and gave results which were considered satisfactorj^ 
both from a financial and an operating standpoint. The equipment 
continued in service until 1898, when it was modernized and multiple 
unit trains substituted for those hauled by locomotives. 

In 1893, the Intramural Road at the World's Fair made use of a 
sliding-shoe contact to gather the current from the third rail and 
demonstrated the applicability of this system of collection which allows 
of almost unlimited quantities of current being picked up while under 
way. The operation of the road was very successful and it served as a 
type for the electrification of the various Chicago elevated roads. The 
Metropolitan Elevated road ordered steam equipment, but the successful 
working of this South Side railroad caused them to cancel their order 
for steam equipment and provide for the electrical working of the road. 



100 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

In the meantime, the South Side Elevated had undertaken to elec- 
trify their line, and for them the multiple-unit system was devised, and 
with the successful operation of this system on this railroad, in 1897, 
third-rail, direct-current operation may be said to have been perfected, 
— subsequent improvements merely being in the nature of detail im- 
provements. Following the adoption of this system, the remaining 
elevated railroads in the United States were rapidly electrified, and the 
third-rail interurban railways began to be constructed between various 
points, as well as this system adopted for various electrifications of 
standard steam railways. 

The first real appHcation of electrification to a standard road was 
in 1895, however, when the Nantasket Beach line of the New York, 
New Haven & Hartford Railroad was electrified, and electrical working 
was applied to the Baltimore & Ohio Tunnel in Baltimore. Electri- 
fication experiments were made on standard European roads before 
this time, and. beginning with 1893, a good deal of activity was manifested 
by them. Their experiments, however, took the direction of propulsion 
by storage-battery locomotives and cars, and systems with similar 
apparatus designed to supply a self-contained motor vehicle. 

As the most general system in use at present has been in existence 
in its entirety over 11 years," and in all of its major features, with one 
exception, for 15 years, it can hardly be termed experimental. 

The systems employed in various electrifications in general are 
operated with a direct current of 600 to 650 volts, supplied usually 
by a third rail; the single-phase system, with voltages from 500 to 
15,000, supphed by an overhead conductor; and the three-phase sys- 
tem with the current supplied usually at high voltages through two 
overhead conductors. The high-tension, direct-current system is also 
coming into use and gives great promise. 

Standard Direct Current Construction. — The most generally used 
system employed in the electrification of heavy railways is that of 
the direct-current third-rail system. Power is generated in a power- 
house by generators which are direct-connected to steam engines, steam 
turbines, or gas engines, as may be best suited to the service. If the 
line be short, direct current may be generated and fed into the working 
conductors, but owing to length of line necessary to be electrified, this 
is very seldom the case. The Baltimore & Ohio Tunnel at Baltimore is 
one of the few examples of this. In general, the current is generated as 
a three-phase alternating current and transformed for use on the line. 
It may be generated at the voltage used in the transmission fines or at 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 101 

a lower voltage and the voltage stepped up before transmission in static 
transformers, a high voltage in the transmission line being desirable 
in order to prevent dissipation of current in transmission and in order 
to permit of the use of smaller wires for transmission. The power- 
station may contain one or more units which generate direct current 
for the working of the section inmiediately adjacent to the power-house 
and the rest of the units alternating-current ones, but generally the 
whole of the current is generated as alternating current, a sub-station 
containing the necessary transforming apparatus being embodied in the 
equipment of the main station to supply that particular portion of 
track. It is customary to provide the power-house with water-tube 
boilers on account of their quick steaming and allowable use of high 
pressures; and various refinements such as feed- water heaters, super- 
heaters, etc., are supplied to these boilers in order to afford the utmost 
economy. 

The coal is usually discharged from the cars in which it is delivered, 
into a hopper underneath the car, whence it passes through a crusher, 
and by a mechanical conveyor to a bunker in the upper portion of the 
boiler-room, whence it feeds by gravity through suitable discharge 
spouts to mechanical stoking apparatus, by which it is carried under- 
neath the boiler and fed in at the most economical rate. The ashes 
drop underneath the boiler into a bin, whence they are tapped onto a 
conveyor and carried to a hopper above the unloading place for the coal 
cars. When a sufficient amount of ashes collects and a car has been 
emptied of its coal, the ashes are run into the car and carried off. 

The current goes from the generators through oil-switches to the 
bus bars of the main switchboard, whence the current is taken off to 
the separate circuits through oil-switches and carried to the various 
sub-stations, where, by means of rotary converters or motor generator 
sets, the alternating current is converted into direct current of the 
required voltage. Before passing into the converting apparatus at the 
sub-station, the voltage of the current is first stepped down by means 
of transforming coils to a suitable operating voltage for the alternating 
current side of the converting apparatus. Various safety devices are 
inserted in the circuits, such as overload and reverse-current relays, 
etc. The transmission line from the power-house to sub-stations may 
be either laid in conduits, in which case paper-insulated, lead-sheathed, 
three-conductor cables are usually installed in vitrified tiling ducts 
enclosed in cement with manholes at intervals; or carried by bare, 
overhead wires, in which case the wires are carried on insulators on the 



102 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

cross-arms of the transmission poles or towers. Where it is necessary to 
cross rivers, a three-conductor rubber and lead-covered armored cable 
is usually laid in a trench in the bottom of the river, the trench being 
afterward filled, or allowed to fill up by the sediment in the river bed. 

Wherever the transmission wires enter or leave a sub-station and 
wherever they go from underground to overhead, or vice versa, Ught- 
ning arresters are customarily installed, special houses being installed, 
in the absence of sub-stations, to contain them — cut-out switches, 
also, usually being installed. 

The direct current from the converting apparatus at sub-stations 
is led to the direct current bus-bars, thence through circuit-breakers 
to the separate circuits which it is necessary to supply with current. 
In third-rail construction it is usually sufficient to treat the third rail 
from one sub-station to another as a continuous conductor, simply 
tjdng in the ends of the rail to the sub-station buses through suitable 
cable. Where the third rail is interrupted at crossings and such places, 
the current is carried past the crossing by jumpers connecting the ends 
of the interrupted rail. These are customarily paper or cambric insu- 
lated, lead-covered cables of from 500,000 to 2,000,000 cir. mil. capac- 
ity, have lugs on the end sweated on to the cable with terminals attached 
to the necessary copper cables each provided with a copper block, at 
the end, which can be soldered to the rail or pressed into holes in the 
rail to form a connection. The jimiper passes across the vacant space, 
underneath the surface, in a tile or other conduit, or may be laid in a 
wooden trough surroimded with pitch, or may be even simply buried 
under the roadway as in the case of the Long Island. It is customary 
to cut the rail, between sub-stations, into sections united by jumper 
cables, which cables pass through a switch-box, the switch in which may 
be opened to cut the current from a particular section of the third rail 
to allow of the rail being repaired without danger to track laborers. 
At important points a similar interruption may be made and the current 
led through a circuit-breaker contained in a house for the purpose, so 
that in case of an abnormal rush of current, the current can be shut off 
and danger or damage to any of the apparatus avoided. 

Where there are switches, sidetracks, and similar isolated pieces of 
trackage, the current is carried from the third rail by jimipers over to 
third rails laid along the switch or other track; and where there is a 
compUcation of track work, a switch-house is sometimes installed to 
which a feeder cable is led from the nearest power sub-station and the 
current distributed through suitable switches to the special pieces of 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 103 

track. AVhere traffic is very dense or where concentration may occur 
at particular points, it is sometimes customary to parallel the track 
with feeders which carry direct current from the sub-station and feed 
it into the thkd rails through suitable connections, at intervals of 1,000 
feet or more apart. Where a third-rail road crosses a highway or goes 
through a station, where it is impossible or undesirable to carry the 
third rail across a space, the rail is interrupted and the current carried 
across the gap by jumpers, as we have already described. This is also 
the plan carried out in crossing a track. In the case of long turnouts, 
it is usually possible to secure continuous connection with the third 
rail by having a third rail laid on either side of the track each side of 
such point, so that when an electric locomotive passes over such pieces 
of track the front shoe on one side will begin to take the current from 
the interrupted rail before the hind shoe on the other side leaves the 
rail. In cases where there is great complication and it is feared that 
an electric locomotive might stall on the track in a position where the 
shoes could not be brought into contact with some portion of the third 
rail, it is customary to erect an overhead structure to the underside of 
which, and following the actual lines of the tracks underneath, is 
attached a number of energized conductors. The electric locomotive 
carries a sliding collector mounted on what is known as a pantagraph, 
which affords a vertical movement of the collector and brings the same 
into contact with the overhead conductor, when air pressure is ad- 
mitted to the working cylinder at the base of the pantagraph at the 
will of the motorman. As installed on the New York Central electri- 
fication, it was said to be intended that the locomotives should bring 
the pantagraph shoe in contact with the overhead collectors in order 
to retain their speed while passing under such structures, but in prac- 
tice it has been found that the electric locomotives usually hold their 
speed while passing such places and it is not necessary to take the 
trouble to bring the overhead collector in contact. They are used now 
only in case of stalling and, consequently, very infrequently. 

Where a third-rail system crosses a river it is usually customary to 
carry the current from the energized rail on one bridge approach over 
to the other, through a submarine cable, so that in case the draw is 
open, the current is not interrupted. It is customary, of course, to 
carry the third rail over the draw of the bridge, but so arranged, how- 
ever, as to be cut out of connection whenever the draw is turned. 

The current is collected from the third rail usually by means of a 
shoe which slides upon the rail or is held up against it, depending upon 



104 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

V 

the type of rail used. It passes through the controlUng apparatus 
which is so arranged in general that it will carry the current to the 
motors at the same time varying the resistance and connecting the motors 
in series or in parallel, as required. The returning cm'rent passes 
through the axles and wheels into the track rail and back along the 
track rail to the negative, direct-current, bus-bars. The track rails are 
connected together by copper bonds so that they form a continuous 
metaUc circuit. 

In order to provide for the proper working of electric block signals, 
the tracks are insulated into sections of the desired length. The sig- 
naling system is suppHed with alternating current, there being a gap 
in the circuit, between the two rails, when no train is in the block. When 
a train enters a block the circuit is completed by the rails being elec- 
trically connected through the metal of the trucks and axles of the ears 
and the signal set at ' 'Danger," by the current working through a relay. 
In order to allow the return current to return through the track past 
the insulation of the ends of the blocks, resistance or impedance bonds 
are connected to the tracks past the insulation. These resistance bonds 
are made up of a number of thick coils of copper which have a low ohmic 
resistance, but a high inductive resistance. The direct-current return- 
track currents pass through them readily, while the alternating-track 
signals cannot pass. To protect the signal circuit and prevent the en- 
trance of a large volume of direct current retmriing through the tracks 
into it, the signal circuit is arranged as a shunt to the track circuit in 
which an impedance coil is inserted, the bulk of the direct current 
flowing through the impedance coil and the signal current shunting 
around it. 

The third rail may be of several types. In cases where the track 
is fully protected -from trespass, it may be an unprotected rail laid on 
insulation blocks of paraffined wood, porcelain, reconstructed granite, 
ox similar material held down by clips turned over the flanges of the 
rail and imbedded in the insulator and held from creeping by anchor 
rods. This type wiU be recognized as the one employed by the elevated 
systems in Chicago. 

Where there is danger of trespassers, passengers, or employees 
coming into contact with the rail, it may be protected by boards held 
by brackets attached to the ties or to the rail itself, the boards enclosing 
the rail except for a sHt into which the collector shoe reaches to collect 
the current. 

The under-running third rail has recently come into prominence 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 105 

and is being largely employed. This rail is held by insulators gripped 
by a C-shaped malleable-iron arm bolted to the cross tie and the rail 
between the insulators protected by a wood sheathing which encloses 
the rail except for the bottom contact surface. It is thus necessary 
for a person to reach up from underneath in order to get into contact 
with the rail, and it looks as though it should be thoroughly safe to the 
public. It has the advantage of offering less strain on the insulation, 
as the shoe acts against instead of with gravity. The board protec- 
tion, being continuously supported, is less apt to crack and warp, 
the rail is better protected from the weather and less liable to 
corrosion, the contact surface is more thoroughly protected from sleet 
and snow, and the passage of the shoe along the rail tends to clean off 
sleet and snow instead of packing it down upon the rail into a sheet of 
ice. 

With direct-current working an overhead trolley wire may be em- 
ployed where the speeds are slow and the quantity of current necessary 
to be collected is not too high. While such construction would not 
be satisfactory for heavy electrification, there are tracks where the 
traffic is light or infrequent where it might be used to possible ad- 
vantage. This is the construction familiar to everybody which is used 
in street-railway trolley construction. While the construction as carried 
out in street-railway practice would have but a limited field, its use 
might be extended by the adoption of a catenary suspension. 

With third-rail systems it is customary to haul through passenger 
trains and freight trains with electric locomotives, while suburban 
traffic is usually taken care of with motor cars hauling trailers or a num- 
ber of motor cars and trailers combined into a train and operated on the 
multiple-unit system. This system we are familiar with as that em- 
ployed in the operation of the elevated railroads in Chicago. Third- 
rail systems have been extensively employed both in heavy-railroad 
electrification and in the working of numerous interurban, elevated, 
and underground railroads. Amongst such systems are the: 

New York Central. 

Paris-Orleans. 

West Shore. 

West Jersey and Seashore. 

Baltimore & Ohio. 

Early New Haven electrifications. 

Long Island. 

North Shore. 

Lancashire & Yorkshire. 

North Eastern. 



106 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILV/AY TERMINALS 

Mersey Tunnel. 

Milan-Varese-Porto Ceresio. 

Paris-Versailles. 

Fayet-Chamounix. 

Wannseebahn. 

Fribourg-Morat. 

City & So. London Subway. 

City & Waterloo 

Central London " 

Great Northern & City Subway. 

Metropolitan of London " 

Metropolitan District of London Subway. 

Underground Electric of " " 

Paris Metropolitan Subway. 

Buda Pesth Underground Subway 

Berlin Underground " 

New York '' 

Great Northern, Piccadilly & Brompton. 

Charing Cross, Euston & Hampstead. 

Manhattan Elevated. 

Brooklyn " 

Kings County Elevated. 

Boston 

Philadelphia 

Metropolitan 

South Side 

Northwestern 

Chi. & Oak Park 

Liverpool 

BerHn Gross Lichterfelde. 

Wilkesbarre & Hazleton. 

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley. 

Albany & Hudson. 

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago. 

Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon. 

Columbus Buckeye. 

Lake & Newark. 

Columbus, London & Springfield. 

Philadelphia & Western. 

Jackson & Battle Creek. 

Scioto Valley Traction Company. 

The principal objections to the third rail are: that it gets in the 
way of ordinary track work to a certain extent, that it may interfere 
with any change in equipment clearances, that its working may be 
interfered with by accumulations of sleet and snow, that it adds 
an increased danger in case of derailment, that it is a hindrance to 
coupling freights, etc., in yards, and that it may be a source of danger 
to the public. 








-^sszs^tdssss 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 107 

As to interference with track work, in case of heavy repairs to the 
track, traffic will be taken off and the section of third rail along the 
track be cut off from the current supply. As to interference with changes 
in equipment clearances, the present lot of tunnels, station platforms, 
etc., are probably equally interfering. 

In regard to derailments, in case of the train forming a short circuit 
between the third rail and the train itself, the rush of current will be 
such that the circuit-breakers will automatically cut off the current from 
the section of track affected. 

The experience of the third-rail roads in general and the test made 
on the New York Central type of protected third rail during heavy 
snow-storms at Schenectady, lead us to believe that no serious difficulty 
may be anticipated in maintaining the schedules of third-rail roads 
on account of snow, so far as it affects the third rail alone. The later 
types of protected third rail we believe to offer little danger to passen- 
gers or people who have to enter the right of way of the railroad. 

As a hindrance to the coupling of freight cars, etc., we believe that 
here there is a good deal of objection to the third rail as it must be a good 
deal in the way, but the slow speed at which switch-engines run in mak- 
ing up a freight train will allow of sufficient power to work a locomotive 
being taken from overhead conductors and of the third rail being dis- 
pensed with. It will be necessary, too, to use overhead conductors for 
team tracks and for places where the railroads use the public streets, — 
such for instance as the tracks on North Water Street or the Illinois 
Central Suburban tracks from Sixty-seventh Street to South Chicago. 
The service on the South Chicago branch is similar to the service offered 
by the Key route in Oakland and Berkeley, where an overhead trolley 
system is in use. 

High-Voltage Direct-Current Systems. — In most direct-current 
work a limit of satisfactory working is reached with a maximum voltage 
of about 650. A rise in voltage above this brings a disproportionate 
increase in problems to the designers and in troubles with operation 
in ordinary direct-current operation. A rise in voltage is desirable in 
order to decrease line losses, but the attempt to go beyond 650 volts is 
liable to lead to trouble, principally from flashing. The larger the 
motors, the more destructive the flashing becomes. When the current 
is momentarily cut off a direct-current motor and turned on again; with 
a large current, flashing occurs if the magnetism has had no opportunity 
to die down and a large current surges through the windings before 
the magnetism can rise, thereby causing field distortion. This can be 



108 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMXALS 

ob'vaated by buildiag motors to secure an instantaneous rise in mag- 
netism. As direct-current motors are built, the solid yoke offers a sec- 
ondary circuit to retard the field magnetism, and also the armature 
coils under the brushes form secondary circuits which may have enor- 
mous moment ar}^ currents set up within them. Freedom from trouble 
with ordinary working at higher voltages than are at present used may 
be effected by pro^^.ding laminated magnetic circuits with no closed 
secondary paths and no low-resistance secondaiy paths in the armatiu-e 
winding. The field is provided with neutralizing compensating wincUngs^ 
which neutrahze the magnetizing effects of the armature. 

This construction, of course, would lead to more expensive motors,, 
and a similar constiTiction of inter-pole generators vdxh. compensating 
coils necessary to generate the higher- volt age ciu^rent would also be more 
expensive, but in the case of lines of certain length it wiU be possible 
to operate a system without sub-stations over a greater range than is 
admissible T\ith present limits to voltage; and with the present system 
retained of a central power-station generating alternating cmTent trans- 
formed to dii'ect current at sub-stations, the adoption of a higher- volt age 
dh'ect-cmTent working would result in smaller conductor losses and fewer, 
larger, more evenly loaded, and more economical sub-stations both as 
regards first cost and as regards operating expenses. 

The trend at the present time is toward a more extended use of inter- 
pole motors, even at the present operating voltages, because of their 
freedom from sparking. T\Tiile there are only a few direct-current high- 
voltage lines installed (and a good many of these installed with a make- 
shift arrangement of running generators and operating motors in pairs 
in parallel to take care of the high voltage instead of using the fuQ range 
of voltage in the apparatus), it is evident that this system ^^11 take a 
fahly large place in the near futm'C. 

Mr. Frank J. Sprague, in advocating this system, offered to carry to 
successful conclusion a direct-current instaUation at a working pressure, 
even on the third rail, of not less than 1500 volts. Even were there 
not high-voltage direct -cm-rent systems in operation, this offer of Mr. 
Sprague shovild make the high- volt age instaUation seriously considered, 
coming as it does from a man who did more than anybody else in its 
infancy to make ordinary du'ect-current working a success and to whom 
the world owes the invention of the multiple-unit system of motor car 
or electric-locomotive working which has resulted in absolute flexibility 
of electric traction. It is not the wild statement of a visionary, but 
the dictum of a man who has already won his laurels by eminently 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 109 

practical applications of electricity and who has nothmg to gain by being 
sensational. 

In addition to its effects as regards the number and spacing and 
operation of sub-stations and the reduction of conductor losses, high- 
voltage direct-current operation offers a great advantage in that it will 
permit of much higher power being taken off an ordinaiy trolley wire 
by an electric locomotive than is possible at the present voltage, and so 
will permit of heavy freight trains being hauled out of yards to which 
it may be necessary to apply overhead conductors, rather than third 
rails, because of obstacles which the third rail presents to teaming and 
other movements through the yards. 

High-voltage direct-current working has had little application in 
the United States. Probably the first system installed was the Indian- 
apolis & Louis\dlle Traction Company, an interurban trolley system 
41 miles long, between Louisville, Kentucky, and Seymour, Indiana, 
carrying 600 volts on the trolley in the cities and 1200 volts outside. 
A single-pole bracket construction (No. 0000 trolley wire) is adopted, 
lightning arresters being installed every 1000 feet. The generators 
and motors are not built for the high voltage, but the current is gener- 
ated by tw^o 600- volt generators operated in series, and the motors are 
operated two in series on 1200 volts, conmiutating-pole motors being 
used however 

The California Midland system is at present under construction. 
It connects Marysville, California, with the mines of Nevada and Placer 
counties, and comprises in all about 70 miles of track and is to operate 
on 1200 volts direct current using a third rail as a conductor in the 
country and overhead conductors in towns. The motors for this line 
will also be 600-volt motors run in series on the high voltage. The 
Central California Traction Company has a similar line under con- 
struction. 

Abroad, a nimaber of high- volt age installations have been put in. 
One of the most notable of these installations in Europe is that of the 
freight road belonging to the French Government between St. Georges 
des Commiers and La Mure, in the coal regions in southwestern France. 
This comprised about 19 miles of single track over a heavy grade, over 
which a large, difficult traffic had to be handled. It became impossible 
to handle the traffic by steam and it was found economical (traffic being 
heavy enough to afford $12,000 per mile revenue) to electrify this part 
of the line. A 2400-volt direct-current system was installed, a 3-wire 
distribution being adopted, two wires overhead carrying 1200 volts 



110 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

positive and negative current respectively and the track forming a 
neutral. 

The Berlin Elevated and the Zweisimmen-Montreux use a voltage 
of 800 to 850. According to Elektrische-bahnen, J. J. Reiter & Company 
is constructing an electric road between Bellinzona and Mesocco, in 
southern Switzerland, carrying 1500 to 1600 volts direct current, each 
motor car carr^dng foui' 1500-volt motors. The Oerhken Company, in 
1906, gave the folloT^ing hst of high-voltage direct current lines 
equipped by them: 

Fribourg-Morat 800 volts 

Bremgarten Dietikon 800 " 

Cheroin de Fer Viveysans 800 '^ 

St. Gallen. Speicherf Trogen 800 " 

Wetzikon, Meilon 800 " 

Montreux, Oberland Bernois 700 to 1100 volts 

Sernftal 800 volts 

Schaffhausen, Schleitheim 800 " 

The Siemens-Schukert Works gave out the fono^\ing Hst: 

Cologne Bahn 800 volts 

Castellamare di Stabia-Sorrento (Italv, 12 miles 

long) ^ 825 " 

Berlin Elevated and L'nderground 800 " 

Moselhutte Freight Railwav (from Maizieres to 

St. Marie, 9 miles) ". 2000 " D. C. 

Anhalt Coal Works (Reppist near Senftenburg, 

4 miles long) 900 '' D. C. 

Single-Phase Operation. — The arguments which hold good for high- 
voltage dh'ect-ciu-rent work hold good in a measm*e for single-phase 
working. The construction of motor which it is necessary to adopt 
for successful high-tension du'ect-ctu"rent working is almost an ideal 
construction for a successful single-phase motor. The single-phase 
series, commutating motor is reaUy a high-grade dkect-cmTent motor. 
By the use of a motor A^ith nearly standard railwaj^-motor character- 
istics, most of the advantages of dh'ect-current operation become avail- 
able and, in adcUtion, almost any potential becomes admissible in the 
working conductors. By the use of a high voltage the emplo^mient of 
sub-stations and rotary converting apparatus becomes entirely im- 
necessary and it is possible to construct very long conductor lines en- 
th'ely without feeders. The emploj^ment of such a system mth a high 
voltage requires the collection of smaU currents, so that no matter what 
the speed of the electric locomotive or motor car or how small the con- 
tact, no difficulty is experienced in collecting whatever amount of power 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION HI 

is requisite for the movement of a train. The high-tension current, upon 
being conducted into the locomotive or motor car is transformed by 
stationary transformers to a suitable low-operating voltage for the 
motors; the use of a low voltage on the control system and motors is 
thus obtained without abnormal transmission losses. The stationary 
transformers can be so arranged as to afford any desired number of 
taps so that a voltage control is insured, thus doing away with rheo- 
static losses. In the typical single-phase system, the power is generated 
almost exactly as it is in the direct-current power-house. Single-phase 
generators may be installed to generate the current, or three-phase 
generators installed and single-phase current taken off of them, the 
detail of the wiring connections being variable according to the oppor- 
tunities presented by the lay-out of the line for possible balancing of 
the phases in the generator. The current is generated directly at 
11,000 volts (or whatever desired) and carried into the worldng con- 
ductor for the whole length of the line without feeders, the bonded 
track forming the return. 

In single-phase systems the line construction is usually a caten- 
ary construction, either with single or double suspension. Main-line 
construction demands to be particularly durable. In certain European 
electrifications, such as a recently completed electrification of the Mid- 
land railway on the Heysham, Morecambe, Lancaster division, and 
on minor American electrifications, such as the Erie, the Annapolis, 
Washington & Baltimore, and the Baltimore-Annapolis Short Line, the 
conductor is suspended from a single messenger; while on the very im- 
portant electrification on the New Haven where expense was secondary 
to efficiency an elaborate suspension from two messengers was adopted. 
In general, the line construction is carried on steel bridges about 
300 feet apart which span the tracks. These bridges carry insulators 
on their upper surfaces from which are suspended stranded steel mes- 
senger cables which, of course, have a sag between insulators. From 
the messenger cables at distances of about ten feet hang suspension 
rods of varying lengths, to the lower ends of which the conductors are 
attached by means of clips. The sag of the messengers and the length 
of the suspenders are so chosen that the working conductor hangs 
always in a position as nearly horizontal as possible and (except for 
occasionally being offset to equalize the wear on the collector-shoe) 
over the center of the track. At intervals of about two miles, a bridge 
much heavier than the ordinary bridge is introduced, which is specially 
braced to take the longitudinal pull of the messengers and conductors. 



112 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

The sections of messenger cables usually terminate at them, and they 
carry section-insulators for the working conductor, although the differ- 
ent lengths of the latter are usually connected in series through circuit- 
breakers carried on such anchor bridges. The anchor bridges also carry 
hghtning-arresters, shunt-transformers for operating circuit-breakers, 
etc. The working conductors usually have sufficient capacity for the 
current, but an auxiliary line may be carried the entire length of the 
line and connected into the working conductors at the anchor bridges 
in order to carry the current around a section of conductor which may 
be out of ser^dce. Electric locomotives or motor cars may be operated 
upon such a system, the high-tension current being transformed inside 
the locomotive by means of stationary transformers to the working 
voltage of the motors, transformers being customarily built with multiple- 
voltage taps, so that a voltage-control is afforded for the motors. The 
return current comes back through the track bonded similarly to that 
for a dii'ect-current system. 

Signal systems are installed in a similar manner as in direct-current 
systems, with the difference that instead of the return current being 
direct current and an alternating current being used for operation of 
the signals, the return current is an alternating current of low frequency 
and a high-frequency alternating current (which will not pass the bonds 
at the end of the block) is used for the operation of the signal system. 

As the series-commutating single-phase motor is really a high-grade 
direct-current motor, single-phase motive apparatus can be used on 
direct current by the addition of the necessary direct-current controlling 
apparatus, and it is customary for single-phase systems to operate on 
direct current through the portions of their line where the high-volt- 
age alternating cm-rent would meet "^ith objection from the local 
authorities, or would be considered dangerous to install. 

Single-phase motors may be either of the series-commutating or of 
the repulsion type. 

The advantages claimed by the advocates of this type of installation 
are its ready facilities for transmission; the ob\dation of third rails with 
resultant comphcations in yards ; the use of one wire as opposed to two, 
on three-phase systems; the affording of an efficient voltage control, 
thereby allowing the power output to be directly proportional to the 
load; the motors can be wound for low voltage and the same trans- 
former for dropping the voltage may be made to afford the voltage con- 
trol; motors readily adjust themselves to the speeds of other motors 
with httle unbalancing; the limits as to control of voltage are removed; 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 113 

rheostatic losses are avoided; sub-stations are avoided with their 
attendant expenses for labor and upkeep; danger of electrolysis by 
return currents is avoided; there is a decreased cost of line copper 
and generally a decreased total cost for the installation of the system, 
thus affording a reduction in carrying charges; the efficiencies of static 
transformers hold over a wider range than those of rotaries; an adapta- 
bility to frequent and violently fluctuating loads; greater facility for 
extension of the electrification. 

The disadvantages are the additional weight of rolling-stock; the 
greater complication of rolling-stock leading to less efficient and more 
expensive maintenance; the complication of the overhead line and 
the adoption of a system of conductor-installation which it is claimed 
will be shorter lived and will demand a larger expenditure for daily 
maintenance than a third-rail system; a consumption of more power 
at the car itself and somewhat higher cost of main power-station per 
kilowatt capacity; the carrying of an active electro-motive force be- 
tween field turns; possible interference with adjacent telephone and tele- 
graph circuits. There are also alleged against this system the troubles 
to which overhead conductors are liable, such as interference from wind, 
lightning, sleet, and snow; structural weakness of supporting apparatus; 
insulator failiu'es; outside interference from falling trees or malicious 
persons; and a possibility of a derailment knocking out the supports 
from the ends of the bridges. The same objections are brought against 
overhead transmission lines for direct-current systems and similar objec- 
tions to underground cable installation for transmission lines of direct- 
current systems, such as the depreciation of cable sheaths from electro- 
lysis, mechanical injury to cables, gas explosions in manholes and 
capacity effects from local conditions causing extraordinarily high 
voltages. 

The operating objections to such a system are that the overhead 
conductors may be in the way of a boom or derrick in wrecking opera- 
tions; it is difficult to inspect, and more exposed to corrosion from 
locomotive gases, whore steam and electricity are used over the same 
track; it may be a source of danger to the men on top of the cars and 
the collection of the current by means of a pantagraph, as usually prac- 
ticed, makes it exceedingly difficult to install ticklers to give warning 
to trainmen on the tops of cars of their approach to low overhead struc- 
tures; and the dangling end of a broken wire may be a menace to the 
public. 

The objections arising from the possibility of derangement and of 



114 ZIZTIIJICATIOX OF EATLWAY TEP^IIXALS 

stmetiirai weaklier-— t ^:t Terr wdl" taken, ^nee it is costcMiiaiy to 
design the overfie& :_ t ~ :i venr laz^ faetois of safety to pro- 

vide fra" adverse c ; :: ::: '.u^. Ikiis, the Neir Haven desgned its over- 
head sjpstem tc T - T Ji "rr all conditicHis, the eaUes being cakulated 
of ^iSSeient str l. ' ~ '~; shoold tiiey be dlieadied in iee one-ha^ 
indi thk-k ^^ :z^ t-= ^i onlj one-^stii of the ultimate stress 

wooki ce rr: _ :_ _ : _ :_t ?tTP?ses doe to wind !i?ivp beai fig- 
nred en :■. ::i.-i~ :: —^L :— v_ ~ : 1 -t p<?^:iE!i= ^rz t foot pro- 

jeeled smfacefor ::^: t- ^z. _' n. ^ : : z _; snifaee 

for flat smfaees, aIk>~:z:T : i::^ _^ t :: : : .r ~Jii pnessme io 
smnmer-time. TheparT? ~i^;_ : : : t ^re the least 

expensive parts of the ii. . : : z - : mat even a vsy iaige d^imonir 
tim nill not be pitJii: : : t_ tt i. :"e. In a three-^dliase inst^latiim 
whielihasbeeninqper::: - zi Z _: t ::7 ~-~-ralyear^ thentaintaiance 
cost of the Bne-constr- : '. i. i. - t tI. ^ 1 - t7 ^il<^ ps* anninn, smd this 
for two troikj wires iz : r l t t Jide-phase instaDation. 

Danger to men <ki : _ : i.: : "TrL the woiking con- 

ductor is obviated by : iz^ :_t5t : z i: ::5 s: .ii^Z above the track 
that they ar^ ~tL >3ve a man's hd^t, tiie s^tan option being 

at : i: ~r^rZ-~-~^: irr: ibove the rails. Danger t: z^ Z.l.. ing wires 
^ : \L :'. L : ": ':e very greai, as tZt ^^tS :-z=: -:::: ;: : ::r i :r : .ii : JIt ziT^soiger 
a: l_"t:- ;Z :: :en fe^ and tZt "rZiZz;;- "iZ :t : :: tIt ^:.l^t:^ - : ZjH 
tL t~::t : -ideofthe Z: 7i_ - i _ l. ^: r "iy. 

of TJiT "^ T ::_:i.^ : t ^ zl 7 ": :. :it ii!s!i vcdtage u-t ^ '.'i-- :~_ 
or ;m::t:_: ~: _:1 :t :: tz:::::.; .:- :i_;, ^: -:.i...-^ :iiat thecir:'.:i:-'::T7£r:5 
~ :_ iWy go oat in ::::i:- i the cnrrait be cot z _ zr 

~i:t In ::-- Z 7 Z t ~::t : :Zm^ 7z. zoming in eontac : ~: Zi : a:- 
budy. ~::i. 'l- : : : i. : : : :n:L injonding irf the r :Z Z :i.e 
car t"- -'l- 7z1t- :; "Lt : :.: ;: n :\:-: :ni/.r7^ ~::Z :Zt :."T-:_;"n.^ 

to a n_i__ n_ Zzt :: _ :: ^ :?^ a contact Z -n Z^ _i t :it 

chancr- :: :■. .-.Z-Z ..:.-- r." .n .t: niVenwaeniT -_;. 

WZi^T -n_^^7 ;_:^~r nL-:::._/.:i;_- _;"t :ia;'. :Zeir2r: — :Ji :.lr!io6t entirdy 

^n :n^ :_e Z~: t<ym: years, tiiis 5y?te _ : _n_ :::: _7:_" popol^ 

:z :_T 7—1.: -cessfnl op^ : z „Z : : -tL^- -: flipped 

tS it oat of the esperim : : . ^.r Z.1t ZTiviest api^ieatiffli of 

: n I 1: Z : " I. Zit Zt" Z z ::_ n :z ~Z.cli svstem thoie 



I 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 115 

were the full share of troubles incident to the development of any new 
type of apparatus, but these troubles have now been overcome and the 
system is under regular and reliable operation and at the time of our 
visit to the system, it was entirely satisfactory, according to the offi- 
cials responsible for its operation. Unmerited criticism of the New 
Haven has come because of the necessity of hauling the heavier trains 
with two electric locomotives, it being alleged that it shows a failm^e 
of the system to meet operating conditions. Inasmuch as the majority 
of the New Haven trains were light trains, the locomotive was chosen 
of the most economical type to haul these trains, with the expectation 
that the heavier trains would be handled by double-heading. When 
the electrification plans of this road were first announced and before 
the locomotives were ordered, it was stated that locomotives would be 
provided '' capable of hauling a 200-ton train at a schedule speed of 
26 miles per hour in local service, stopping every 2^ miles, and that 
for heavier trains two locomotives would be provided," and when 
the first of these locomotives was tested and the locomotive actually 
hauled a 294-ton train under the 200-ton requirements, the satisfactory 
showing of the locomotive was generally commented upon. (See 
Street Railway Journal, August 24, 1907.) When it was announced 
before the locomotives were built that the heavier trains would be 
double-headed, adverse criticism of the locomotives for doing precisely 
as they were designed is very much out of place. 

The steam railroad electrifications using the single-phase system 
in the United States are: 

New York, New Haven & Hartford. 

Sarnia Tunnel, Grand Trunk railway. 

Annapolis, Washington & Baltimore. 

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line. 

Erie. 

Visalia & Lemon Grove (subsidiary to the Southern Pacific) . 

Trolley lines: 

Glen Cove (owned by the Long Island) . 

Indianapolis and Indiana Traction Company (direct-current replaced 

by single-phase) . 
Ft. Wayne, Decatur & Springfield, 
Spokane & Inland Empire System. 
Warren & Jamestown. 
Bloomington, Pontiac & Joliet. 
Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern. 
Vallejo, Benicia & Napa Valley. 
Westmoreland County Street Railway. 
Atlanta & Northern. 



116 ELECTRIFICATION OF JIAILWAY TERMINALS 

Chicago & Milwaukee. 

Illinois Traction Company. 

Pittsburgh & Butler Traction Company. 

Milwaukee Electric Railway and Light (Oconomowoe line). 

Chicago, Lake Shore and South Bend. 

Steam-road electrifications in Europe: 

London, Brighton & South Coast. 
Mdland railway. 
Seebach Wettingen. 
VaUe Maggia. 

Spindlersfeld-Niederschoenweide. 
Hamburg, Altona, Blankenese. 
Vienna-Baden. 

Swedish government railways. 
' Borinage. 

Miscellaneous : 

Hamburg City Interurban. 

Menzel. 

Stub ait alb ahn. 

Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore. 

Rome-Ci\dta-CasteUana. 

Three-Phase Systems. — The first development of alternating-current 
traction applied to hesivy railroads was with three-phase apparatus, be- 
cause a satisfactory type of railway motor was devised for three-phase 
working, before the builders of electrical apparatus undertook the con- 
struction of single-phase railway motors. The advantages as to lessened 
first cost because of absence of sub-stations and rotary transforming ap- 
paratus which are afforded by single-phase installation, are also available 
with three-phase apparatus. It has also proven attractive to European 
engineers because a number of European electrifications have been 
on heavy grades where recuperative working would be advantageous. 
The three-phase motors upon the line act as a sort of fly-wheel and store 
up or give back energy at times. Running on down grade the motor 
will generate and feed current back into the line, and in case of a sudden 
load coming on the power-house generators, the electric locomotives 
or motor cars in motion will restore a part of the current to the line 
and thereby make the load upon the power-house generators very 
smooth. 

Except for the electrification of tunnels and mountain grades, for 
which it possesses a peculiar adaptability, three-phase equipment is 
objected to in this country because of the poor starting torque of the 



I 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 117 

motors, because of objection to two overhead conductors in place 
of one, and because the three-phase motor runs at the same speed, 
regardless of grade, and allows little or no opportunity to make up lost 
time for a late train. Such motors would probably also be objectionable 
for electric locomotives exposed to very severe conditions as the vari- 
ation of drive-wheel diameters commonly found with the drive-wheels 
of ordinary locomotives would throw the motors out of synchronism, 
and result in an objectionable unbalancing of the load between the 
motors on the several trucks. 

The equipment of three-phase roads is similar to that of single-phase 
roads. Three-phase power is generated in a central power-plant, and 
either delivered direct into the working conductors at the voltage at 
which it is generated, or it is carried to sub-stations along the line where 
the voltage is transformed by stationary transformers to the line voltage 
and there deUvered into the line. Two phases of the cm-rent are carried 
in two overhead wires, the third phase is provided for by the contin- 
uously bonded track rails. The conductors may be either directly 
attached to overhead bridges, supported from same by a single catenary 
carried by a cross-catenary suspension between side poles, or carried 
by a span-wire or bracket-arm construction similar to street-railway- 
trolley practice. The transforming apparatus is usually carried on 
the motor car or locomotive, although a low-line voltage may be used 
and the separate sections of the line fed from stationary transformers 
in sub-stations at the motor voltage. The so-called cataract control 
takes the place of the series parallel control in direct-current working, 
the stator of one motor being connected to the rotor of the second. 
The use of two overhead wires is liable to make crossings, turnouts, 
and yards complicated. It is probable, however, that such complication 
at a good many points could be obviated by the dropping out of one 
wire over such a crossing or turnout, since the three-phase motor will 
continue to run, although unbalanced, with one phase dead. Where 
three-phase systems enter cities, direct-current working may be adopted 
for the section through the city. This, for instances, has been done 
with the Lake Ontario & Port Stanley, a street-railway three-phase 
installation in Canada. 

About the only three-phase electrification in the United States is 
the electrification of the Cascade tunnel on the Great Northern rail- 
way, at present under construction. 

The most important three-phase system abroad is that employed 
on the Valtellina railway, a part of the Adriatic line in northern Italy. 



118 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

This electrification comprises 67 miles of road at present, and is being 
extended. Amongst three-phase installations may be mentioned: 

Great Northern (Cascade Tunnel). 
Lake Ontario & Port Stanley. 
London & St. Thomas. 

Valtellina 67 miles. 

Burgdorf-Thun 25 " 

BerHn Zossen 14 " 

Stansstadt-Engelberg 14 " 

Zermatt-Gornergratt 6 '' 

Jungfrau. 

Simplon Tunnel. 

St. Gothard. 

Experimental track WoUersdorf Arsenal, Austria. 

Arlberg Tunnel, Austria. 

Ward Leonard System. — In this system, instead of putting a rotary 
converter in a sub-station, the rotary is carried on the locomotive itself, 
the direct current from the rotary being used to operate standard direct- 
current locomotive equipment. While it saves transmission losses 
-and affords smooth starting, requires only one conductor, the regulation 
of torque is good and electric braking is possible, the weight of the motor 
generator set, it would seem, would make the locomotive abnormally 
heavy for its power and the cost prohibitively high. For moderate- 
powered locomotives it would perhaps have a certain field, but to 
install an equipment of, say, the equivalent power of the New York 
Central locomotives would lead to an extremely cumbersome machine. 
It is probable that with such a locomotive, a tender of about the same 
size as the present New York Central locomotive bodies would have to 
be carried along to contain the motor generator set. There is this to be 
said, however, that the system has not had a very extensive application, 
which would lead to a material cutting down of weights and possibly a 
shaping up of the apparatus into practicable form for large sizes. 
Experiments are now being made with this system on the Seebach- 
Wettengen line in Switzerland, and when their results are published the 
capability of this system can be better judged. 

Storage Batteries. — From time to time experiments have been made 
upon storage-battery motor cars and locomotives. These look attrac- 
tive because of affording a self-contained unit which could be utilized 
on existing railway lines without any investment for line equipment. 
They also offer fields for economy in the possibility of avoiding rheo- 
static losses by using voltage regulation from different battery com- 
binations and also the possibility of recuperative charging while gouig 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 119 

down hill or coming to a stop. The earliest electrical experiments were 
with storage-battery apparatus. In 1893, the Chemins de Fer du Nord 
constructed a storage-battery locomotive with which they hoped to 
haul their trains through the tunnel into their Paris terminal. The 
locomotive weighed 46 tons, of which 19 tons were battery, and was 
equipped with four 30-horse-power motors. The Belgium railways 
made experiments in 1894 with a 100-horse-power motor car equipped 
with batteries, but the equipment was not well chosen and the experi- 
ment was a failure. The Royal Bavarian railways, in 1896, inaugurated 
a service of storage-battery cars as an auxiliary to their steam-railway 
service on their Worms-Ludwigshafen-Weisstadt line. On the Milan 
Monza line in Italy, in 1899, a motor-car service supplied by storage 
batteries was put on to stimulate and develop local traffic. It worked 
fairly satisfactorily from an operating point of view, although the 
necessity of charging the batteries kept the cars within the city limits 
most of the time; but from an economic point of view, the results were 
not satisfactory, as maintenance was very high. The Rete Adriatica 
(by whom the Valtellina line is worked) put into service in November, 
1900, a regular storage-battery train service on the line from Bologna to 
San Felice and on the Modena to Poggio Rusco line, one-motor car hauling 
a number of trailers. The capacity of the batteries allowed a 60-mile 
run without recharging and a speed of 27 miles per hour was made. 
The idea was not to prove storage batteries available for full-line service, 
but to use it for experiment to secure an economical service on secondary 
and branch lines of limited movement. After being kept on three 
years, the service was taken off, the equipment abandoned, and 
return was made to steam traction. The Paris, Lyons, Mediterranean 
company made an experiment with an electric locomotive in 1897, 
of 610 horse-power, capable of hauling a trailing load, not including 
battery, of 101 tons. The locomotive weighed 90.3 tons, of which the 
tender carrying the battery weighed 45.8 tons. A storage-battery 
service was put on the line between Aja and Scheveningen. The 
Hungarian government put such a service on the Arad line. The 
Wiirtemberg government made a series of competitive tests between 
storage-battery cars, gasoline cars, and steam motor cars, maintaining 
each type of car in service for a period of several months. Besides 
these, a number of storage-battery experiments have been made on 
street-car systems, both in this country and abroad. 

Storage-battery traction was first advocated for heavy traction, 
later, for service on light and unfrequented lines; and lastly, as a means 



120 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

of putting on a cheaply installed, cheaply riin, and more frequent ser- 
vice on lines upon which it was believed enough traffic could be stim- 
ulated to justify electrification with standard apparatus, the storage- 
battery car being used in the meantime as a means of trying this out. 
The disadvantages of a storage-battery installation are that the 
batteries necessary to afford the requisite power are extremely heavy 
and form from one-eighth to one- third the weight of the entire train; 
that they are expensive in fu'st cost; that they lack elasticity, the very 
violent fluctuations to which they are exposed in railway working 
rapidly running down and deteriorating the battery; the cost of 
maintenance of batteries is extremely high because of the ^dbrations 
to which they are subjected from passing over switches, around curves, 
etc.; that they afford a very low efficiencj^ because of the severe 
conditions under which they are worked and because their rapid deteri- 
oration because of the adverse conditions under which they must be 
maintained in a locomotive installation rapidly pulls down their efficiency 
from that which they possess when new. This last was very weU 
shown in the Wiirtemberg experiments, the energy consumption being 
4034 watt-hours per ton mile when the installation w^as new, while the 
average for fifteen months was 61 3^ watt-hours per ton mile. The 
results of the Wiirtemberg experiments are given in the appended table. 

Daimler Sarpollet Ganz 

Benzine Steam Accumulator Steam 

Approximate weight car in tons 15.7 22.1 35.4 14.3 

Number seats 24 32 56 33 

Average cost of car $7517 $7517 $6547 

Daily performance, miles 56 . 4 54 54 120 

Fuel cost per mile $0.0352 $0.0302 $0,027 

Cost lubricants per mile $0.0025 $0.0023 $0,001 

Total cost suppHes per mile $0 . 0377 $0 . 0325 $0 . 1042 $0 . 028 

" " " per seat mile $0.00157 $0.0098 $0.01768 $0.0082 

Gasoline and Gasoline-Electric Cars. — A good deal of experimenting 
has been done with motor cars driven by gasoline engines, either \\ith 
a straight gasoline equipment or a gasoline-electric equipment, — that is, 
the cars may be driven simply from a gasoline engine driving the trucks 
through gearing or by sprocket chains, or they may be driven by electric 
motors which are supphed with current from a gasoline engine driving a 
dynamo within the car. 

The advantages of these cars are that they demand httle attention, 
and it is possible for the cars to carry a crew of two men only. The 



SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR ELECTRIFICATION 121 

fuel consumption stops whenever the car stops; the car is ready for 
operation at a moment's notice. The reason for employing the gasoline- 
electric drive rather than the straight gasoline is, that the car is under 
much better control, being easily started and stopped, and with a large 
range of speed variation. The gasoline-electric car should be somewhat 
more reliable than the straight gasoline car, since the driving mechanism 
is simpler. A further refinement in the case of a gasoline-electric car 
consists of the installation of a storage battery to steady the load on 
the engine and this battery may be large enough to afford sufficient 
current to enable the motor car to get to its destination, should the 
engiae break down. The economy in the battery installation lies in 
the more economical working of the engine, due to a steadier load, and 
to the ability to use a smaller engine and generator, supplying the peak 
from the battery. 

The Union Pacific has built aixd is building a large number of gas- 
oline cars which are in successful operation for branch-line and inter- 
mediate-traffic operation in the West. The St. Joseph Valley Traction 
Company and the Delaware & Hudson are using gasoline electric 
equipment, the former with a storage-battery attachment. 

These devices have been studied in their relation to the possible 
handling of suburban traffic. While their use would do away with the 
smoke nuisance, it is not believed that they are capable of reaching a 
heavy enough development to afford material assistance to the rail- 
roads, in coping with the Chicago situation. They, in company with 
steam-motor cars, afford a cheaply installed and economically run ser- 
vice for branch and imfrequented lines, but they are a small proposition 
at the most. To build them in sizes capable of handling the heavy tra^ins 
would demand prohibitive weights. While gasoline engines have 
been built with extremely hght weights per horse-power, the experience 
of engine builders is that, to secure the greatest reliability, internal 
combustion engines must be made at least 50% heavier than steam en- 
gines of equal capacity, and they must be fastened down very rigidly. 
Thus, the gas engines built by one of the large engine builders in the coun- 
try run uniformly around 50% above the weights of steam engines. 
We beheve that their development in large sizes would lead to machines 
like the Heilman locomotive, built by the Compagnie de I'Guest in 
France, which sought to obtain the advantages of electrical traction by 
carrying a complete electrical power-plant on the frame of the locomotive 
in addition to driving motors. The locomotive was equipped with 
compound engines and two generators, in addition to the boilers, motor 



122 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

equipment, etc. In order to provide a 1200 horse-power equipment, 
a machine weighing 150 tons was built, at a cost of $54,000. 

GasoHne cars and gasohne electric cars can afford an extremely 
valuable auxiliary service in giving a cheap passenger service to lightly 
patronized lines. They may also be used to great advantage as stim- 
ulators of traffic, and undoubtedly could be used successfully by put- 
ting a fast and frequent service of them on a line which it is believed 
would offer a favorable field for electrification, to ascertain whether the 
better service will give rise to a sufficiently dense traffic to support 
such electrification. Should a favorable result be shown, the line 
could then be electrified. That this is the trend, is shown by an item in 
the ELECTRIC RAILWAY JOL^NAL of June 20, 1908, which states 
that the Missouri & Kansas Interurban Railway Company, operating 
a road between Kansas City, Missouri, and Olathe, Kansas, origi- 
nally equipped with Strang gasoline cars, has now under consideration 
the electrification of its road to take care of the increasing traffic. 



»«»*»■ »r- »!*•.-» 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTHIC TRACTION 

H. H. EVANS 

We shall examine in this section the electrifications which are already 
in operation, which are under construction, and those for which plans 
have been adopted but actual construction work has not yet been begun. 
This will afford us a means of judging whether electrification has passed 
from an experimental to a practical state, whether the various features 
found in Chicago have been met with in electrifications already installed 
in other places, and we shall endeavor to go into the reasons and the 
results of these electrifications as far as information is at hand. 

An examination of existent electrifications shows by their number, 
their magnitude, and their diversification and the length of time that 
they have been in operation, that electrification has passed from the ex- 
perimental to the practical state. Such experimentation as is being done 
is done to determine which system of electrification is best adapted for 
certain conditions and not to see whether electrification in general is 
practicable; — the choice is between systems and not a proving of the art. 

While the precise situation met with in Chicago has not been encoun- 
tered in existing electrifications and while the volume of freight han- 
dled by electricity is small, there seems to be hardly a feature of the 
Chicago situation which has not been met in some place or other to a 
greater or less degree in existent electrifications. So far as ability to 
handle a dense traffic is concerned, we believe that it is generally con- 
ceded that under electrical working a greater number of trains can be 
handled under a given trackage, than imder any other system. Thus, 
the schedule of the New York Subway requires thirty eight-car trains 
to be handled over one track in an hour, and during the rush hours the 
headway is one minute and forty seconds, with a possibility of improve- 
ment as soon as the cars have been altered to facilitate the loading and 
ujiloading of passengers. As the Subway is a four-track road, to send 
8-car trains over the tracks on 1 minute, 40 seconds headway would mean 
a possible 144 8-car trains past a given point in an hour, or 1152 cars. 

Now the Illinois Central has the heaviest similar traffic in Chicago, 
where close on to 1000 cars are handled on four tracks in 24 hours, so 
that a system which is capable of hauling the entire 24-hour requirement 
in one hour, can hardly be said to lack the requisite capacity. 

123 



124 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

As to speed, the fastest speed on record is that made dui'ing the 
Berhn-Zossen tests, when 130 miles per hour was made by an electri- 
cally propelled train. Such a speed as this is entirely impracticable, 
but at the same time it demonstrates the capabiUties of electric traction 
in tliis direction. 

As to train weights, electrical traction is being installed in several 
points, because it is capable of handling heavier trains than is possible 
by steam. 

As to mechanical diJSiculties of installation of third-rail or other con- 
ductors in comphcated yards we would call attention to the plate of the 
track lay-out in the New York Central's terminal, now in process of con- 
struction, which plate will be found inserted at the end of this report. 
(Reprinted from '^Engineering News.") 

We shall first examine the existent electrifications in the United 
States and then those which have been installed in various foreign 
countries. 

UNITED STATES. 

The first electrification of a standard steam road in the United States 
was that of the Nantasket Beach branch of the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford railway. This was put into service on the 30th of Jmie, 1895, 
a motor-car passenger service for the hauling of excursion crowds being 
installed. It was followed closely by the electrification of the Baltimore 
& Ohio Timnel through the city of Baltimore, which was put into service 
August, 1895, and was the first piece of main line electrified in the 
world. The new Haven extended its electrification to other branches, 
and shortly after this, the Boston & Maiae built an electrical section 
into Concord; the Pennsylvania railway electrified its Baltimore & Mt. 
Holly branch about the same time. 

After this, the electrification movement began to be more or less 
general. Lines which were in competition with, street-railway and inter- 
urban roads, were first electrified in order to meet this competition, 
and later, suburban and interurban sections of road were electrified. 
Finally came the major electrifications, such as those of the Long Island, 
New York Central, and the New Haven roads. 

The motives for electrification have been various. In some cases, 
where coal was high or water power available, roads have been electrified 
purely from motives of economy. In other cases, electrification has been 
resorted to to get rid of the smoke nuisance. Again, sections of road 
have been electrified to meet certain railway or interurban competition; 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 125 

and in at least one case it is given out that the reason for electrification 
was to secure a larger possible traffic movement. In some cases electric 
roads have seciired control of steam railroads and electrified them as a 
part of their system and in other cases steam railroads have acquired 
control of electric interurban properties and electrified a portion of the 
steam road to form a link in such a system. 

NEW YORK CENTRAL & HUDSON RIVER RAILWAY. 

The New York Central electrification was undertaken primarily to 
get rid of the smoke nuisance, but after the electrification of this terminal 
was determined upon, the scope of the work was extended so as to 
secure a number of advantages to the railroad. The passenger entrance of 
the New York Central into New York City is by means of a four-track 
line, which passes from the junction of two divisions of the railroad just 
north of the Harlem River in an almost north and south line to the ter- 
minal station at Park Avenue and Forty-second Street, a little below the 
center of the Island. The Harlem River bridge was formerly a source 
of a good deal of annoyance because of the necessity of opening the draw 
for the passage of almost all kinds of craft. About ten years ago 
these interruptions became so serious that the bridge was raised high 
enough to permit the passage of all classes of vessels, except those 
with spars or high upper works, without opening the draw. This 
necessitated the elevation of the tracks from the Harlem River to the 
entrance of the Park Avenue Timnel at Ninety-ninth Street. From 
Ninety-ninth Street south to Fifty-sixth Street extends a tunnel 
under Park Avenue, with occasional ventilation louvres to the street 
above. From Fifty-sixth Street south to the terminal station, the 
tracks lead through a sunken terminal yard. Just north of the Har- 
lem River at Mott Haven, there is a junction of the main line of the 
railroad (which comes down the east side of the Harlem River to 
the mouth of that river and skirts the shore of the Harlem beneath 
the bluffs to Mott Haven), and the Harlem division of the railroad, 
extending north about 130 miles to Chatham, New York, — both being 
foiu"- track lines. Coming over the Harlem division, which it joins at 
Woodlawn, 12 miles from Grand Central Station, is the main traffic 
of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, this road having 
a trackage agreement with the New York Central. There is, thus, 
practically a junction just north of the terminal tracks of three four- 
track lines carrying a very heavy traffic. The traffic at the inception 
of the electrification amounted to about 650 trains per day, and this 
has been increased since the electrification. 



126 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 

There are, in addition to these Unes described, but not included in 
the electrification at the present time (although their electrification 
is contemplated), a freight line leaving the main line at Spuyten 
Duy^il, at the confluence of the Harlem and Hudson Rivers, there 
crossing the Hudson River and ronning thence along the western shore 
line of Manhattan Island to a freight terminal at Thirtieth Street and 
Ninth Avenue, and thence extending south along West Street partly on 
tracks used by a horse street-car line to within about a mile of the Bat- 
tery, and a passenger line known as the Putnam di^dsion running 
parallel to and about midway between the two electrified lines we have 
described, and crossing the Harlem River at One Hundred Fifty-ninth 
Street, where it makes a connection with the Interborough Rapid 
Transit Company's lines. 

The weakest point in the New York terminal has been the Park 
Avenue Tunnel. It has acted as a throttle upon the whole system and 
has been a menace to the travelling pubhc and a source of great discom- 
fort. The small terminal yard and the junction at Mott Haven were 
also throttle points in the system. The public became greatly dissat- 
isfied with the operation of this tunnel by steam locomotives, and several 
serious accidents in the tunnel brought home to everybody the need of 
providing a means of operation which would do away with the smoke 
nuisance inside the tunnel. The railroad worked out a mmaber of 
projects for amehoration of the conditions, installed several improved 
signal devices in order to make its operation more safe, and finally 
turned to the consideration of electrification, partly in order to get rid 
of the smoke nuisance and partly to afford an increased terminal and 
trafl&c capacity. 

In 1901 they had a commission make a study of the feasibihty of 
electrifying their system between the Grand Central Station and the 
Harlem River. Meantime, property owners adjacent to the property 
had organized and were active in agitation for legislation to compel the 
use of electric trains in the tuimel. Pubhc sentiment was crystaUized 
by the serious accident of January 8, 1902, and the demands for the 
electrification of the road were so insistent that a legislative act was 
finally passed in 1903, requiring the electrification of the terminal 
within five years. 

T\Tien the New York Central made their plans for electrification, 
they adopted a very comprehensive plan designed to largely better their 
terminal and traffic facilities. They provided for an increase in ground 
area in terminal of 178% and in track length of 151%, their storage tracks 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 127 

being increased 453% so as to enable them to store trains at the terminal 
instead of having to haul all incoming trains out to the yards beyond the 
Harlem River for storage. They also decided to extend the scope of the 
electrification to include their suburban service, carrying the installation 
under the present plans to Croton on the Hudson division, 34 miles 
from Grand Central Station, and to North White Plains on the Haarlem 
division, 24 miles distant. Mere compliance with the law would have 
only required the electrification out as far as Mott Haven, a distance 
of 53^ miles from the station, or had it been possible to make the 
changes in motor power in the limited space of the terminal, the mere 
electrification of the two-mile length of Park Avenue Tunnel would 
have met the requirements of the legislature. 

In addition to the electrification of their main line and suburban 
traffic, an extensive enlargement of their termiaal yard was undertaken. 
Additional tracks were laid within the electric zone and a number of 
improvements made in alignment, trackage, and station plant. The 
most notable improvement in alignment is the Marble Hill cut-off, where 
an S-shaped curve is obviated by a fill and a tunnel. A large amount 
of track elevation and yard construction has been undertaken, suburban 
stations have been rebuilt, and the necessary plant built for the care of 
electrical apparatus. In addition, a new and a larger office building is 
being built to replace the Grand Central Station. The terminal is to 
have tracks on two levels, the suburban terminal being practically 
separate from the other terminal and located on a lower level. The 
streets which were formerly interrupted at the termiaal yard, are beiag 
carried across on steel bridge work and eventually the entire terminal 
yard will be covered with office buildings or other revenue-producing 
property, the cars running underneath them. Thus a large proportion 
of very valuable ground will be reclaimed for general use. 

The freight tracks have not yet been electrified. The liae which we 
have already described along the western side of the island is the only 
New York City line carrying freight, which enters Manhattan Island; 
the bulk of the freight goes to the New Jersey shore, whence it is lightered 
to its destiaation. These tracks on the western side of the island have 
always been a matter of a good deal of dispute in New York City. They 
could be made of a great deal more service than they at present afford, 
were the railroad given a free hand in their development. There has 
been a tendency to hamper them as much as possible because they are 
somewhat in the nature of a nuisance and because the people have 
serious objections to the railroad monopolizing the water front. Before 




128 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

the Pennsylvania tunnels, under the Hudson River, were undertaken, 
a plan was made for building a large suspension bridge across the 
Hudson River, upon which the roads would be brought into New York. 
A large amount of the preliminary engineering work for this bridge was 
done, the permission of the War Department was obtained for its building 
and a bill providing for its charter passed the state legislature. The 
charter provided for an elevated freight railroad along the western 
water front of Manhattan Island as an approach to the bridge and would 
have given the bridge company a virtual monopoly. Because of the 
public objection to this feature, the bridge bill was vetoed by the gov- 
ernor of New York state. So it has been with most attempts to provide 
a better freight service for the docks along the New York water front. 
We have it on very good authority that the New York Central is 
extremely desirous of developing this line. They have made a propo- 
sition to the Public Service Commission, if we can believe the reports 
generally published in the New York press, to build a subway along the 
western shore of the island and put their tracks in it and electrify 
them, provided certain concessions are given, one of which, we believe, is 
an extension of the franchise to give them freight-carrying privileges to 
the extreme end of the island; and another, to allow them to tie these 
tracks through a cross-town subway, to the trackage in the Grand Cen- 
tral terminal. By so doing they would be able to offer greatly increased 
freight facilities and they would be enabled to bring their passenger 
trains from the Hudson division, south along these tracks and into the 
Grand Central Station, thereby relieving the congestion at the junction 
of these tracks with the Harlem division tracks at Mott Haven, which 
exists at present. Their power-house is of sufficient capacity to handle 
not only their present traffic, but this freight traffic as well, so it is 
reasonable to conclude that the eventual handling of this freight traffic, 
as announced in the press and as we have it from certain other sources, 
is contemplated by the New York Central. 

The initial electric zone is 17 miles long; the section from Grand 
Central Station to Wakefield 13 miles and from Mott Haven to Kings- 
bridge, 4 miles long. In this there are 73 miles of main and 12 miles 
of yard track, or 85 miles of track. In the entire zone there will be 52 
miles of line in which there will be 224 miles of main track and 68 miles 
of yard track, or a total trackage of 292 miles of electrified track. 

The power-stations are in duplicate, stations similar in essential 
respects being installed at Yonkers and at Port Morris. Each will have 
an ultimate capacity of 30,000 kilowatts, the present capacity being 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 129 

20,000. The turbine room is 69 feet by 232 feet and at present con- 
tains four 5,000-kilowatt Curtis turbo-generator sets. Two 150-kilowatt 
turbo-generator exciter sets and one 150-kilowatt motor generator 
exciter set are provided for each station. The boiler-rooms are 88' x 
232' and will ultimately contain each twenty-four 625-horse-power Bab- 
cock and Wilcox boilers, of which 16 are at present installed. Over 
each boiler-room is a coal bunker with a capacity of 3,500 tons, the 
usual coal unloading and conveying apparatus being provided. An oper- 
ating gallery runs across the end of the turbine-room, but the switch- 
houses are entirely separate from the main buildings. The separate 
switch-house building contains also a power-station sub-station parti- 
tioned off from the switch gear. An auxiliary board in the switch-house 
allows the main operating board to be cut out if necessary. There is a 
complete isolation of the alternating-current and direct-current appara- 
tus and all high-tension apparatus is installed in the basement under 
the switch-house, to which only authorized persons have access. The 
power-stations are inter-connected so that either one can carry the 
entire load of the system. A large storage battery is installed in each 
sub-station, the storage battery capacity of the system being sufficient 
to carry the entire system for several hours in case of a shut-down at 
the power-house. The capacity of these batteries is as follows: 

Sub-station Location No. of Cells Discharge rate 1 hour No. Boosters 

Gr. Central Station 318 4020 amperes 2 

Mott Haven 318 3750 amperes 2 

Kingsbridge 318 3000 amperes 2 

Yonkers 318 2250 amperes 

Irvington 318 2250 amperes 

Ossining 318 2250 amperes 

Bronx Park 318 2250 amperes 

Searsdale 318 2250 amperes 

The power is generated at 11,000 volts and transmitted to the various 
substations by duplicate systems of insulated copper cables inside the 
populous districts of the city and by bare, overhead wires carried on 
steel poles on the sections outside the city. The cables within the city 
are carried in ducts in the ground, in ducts within the side walls in the 
tunnel, or in pipe conduits on top of the enclosing walls of the elevation, 
as conditions demand. The direct-current feeders are carried in a sim- 
ilar manner as the high-tension transmission lines. At frequent inter- 
vals the feeders enter circuit-breaker houses where the ciu-rent is carried 
through automatic circuit-breakers which interrupt the circuit in case 



Miles from Grand 




Central Station 


Rotaries 


.36 


3-1500 


5-47 


3-1500 


9.44 


3-1000 


15.64 


3-1000 


22.11 


3-1000 


30.31 


3-1000 


9.3 


3-1000 


19.02 


3-1000 



130 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

of an abnormal flow of current, owing to short circuits or other causes. 
The alternating current, upon entering a sub-station, is transformed, 
from 11,000 to 450 volts by stationary transformers and the 450- volt 
current led into rotary converters, from which 660-volt direct current is 
fed into working conductors. In each station storage batteries are in- 
stalled, as we have before mentioned, floating on the line, so that when 
current demands come in excess of the station capacity, the battery 
feeds into the working conductors and when the demand is below the 
station capacity, the excess current charges the battery. The sub- 
stations are located as follows: 

Location 
Fifteenth St. & Lexington Ave. 

Mott Haven Junction 

Kingsbridge 

Yonkers 

Irvington 

Ossining 

Bronx Park 

[ Scarsdale 

The current is led from the sub-stations into the third rail, and con- 
nections from feeders are made into this rail at points where traffic is 
liable to be heavy or where too large a drop in voltage would otheiivise 
be had. The rail is of the protected, under-nmning type originated by 
Messrs. Wilgus and Sprague and its operation has proved extremely 
satisfactory both as regards freedom from sleet troubles and its safety 
to the public. At intervals the rails are sectionalized and connection 
made past the break through a sectionalizing switch carried at the side 
of the track, the terminals from which are connected to the rail ends by 
the usual jumper cables. These sectionalizing switches enable a portion 
of the third rail to be cut out of the circuit in case there is work to be 
done. The return is by means of the track rails which are bonded 
together by bonds concealed imder the fish-plates and the track cross- 
bonded at intervals through impedance bonds. The signals are worked 
by means of a 25-cycle alternating ciu"rent of low voltage, the rails at 
abutting blocks being insulated from each other and the continuity of 
the track return kept by leading the current through impedance bonds 
around the insulated gap. 

The transmission in the initial zone comprises 12 miles of conduit 
territory, 89 miles of cable in conduits, 6 miles of pole-line territory, 48 
miles of cable on poles, 220 splicing-chambers, 9 circuit-breaker houses, 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 131 

1 cable tower, 1,500,000 pounds of copper. In the entire zone there will 
be 16 miles of conduit, 97 miles of cable in conduits, 48 miles in pole 
lines, 344 miles of cables on poles, 382 splicing-chambers, 26 circuit- 
breaker houses, 3 cable towers, 3,000,000 pounds of copper. In the 
initial zone the working conductor comprises a 70-pound rail along 75 
miles of track. There are 285 circuit-breakers and switches, 1,400 feet 
of jumpers, 43,000 track bonds. The whole terminal will have 285 
miles of third rails, 5 miles of overhead construction, 450 switches, 
37,000 feet of jumpers, 136,000 track bonds. The terminal will have a 
capacity of 12,000 cars when finished. 

The equipment originally ordered comprised 35 locomotives for 
hauling the through trains and a suburban equipment of 125 motor 
cars and 65 trailers. The locomotives have a total weight of 94 J^ tons, 
measure 37 feet over all, 27 feet on wheel base, carry 683^ tons on the 
drivers and are equipped each with four 550-horse-power motors, mak- 
ing a total of 2,200 horse power for the motors, the overload capacity 
of the locomotive being 3,300 horse power. The motors are gearless, 
bi-polar motors with flat-pole faces and a large air gap so that changing 
of armatures is very readily effected and so that there is very little pos- 
sibility of derangement from running or by operation. The locomotives 
are fitted with Sprague-General-Electric multiple-unit control so that 
they may be worked double-headed by one operator. They are fitted 
with collector shoes on both sides at both front and rear and with two 
pantagraphs on top which can be raised by air pressure and brought into 
contact with a working conductor carried on overhead frame work 
above portions of the track where intricacies of the lay-out interrupt the 
continuity of the third rail. The locomotives are fitted with an oil- 
fired steam boiler for heating the trains to which they are attached in 
winter time. The cars for suburban service are of steel throughout, 
measuring 62 feet over all. The motor cars are equipped with two 200- 
horse-power motors, or a total of 400 horse-power for the car. The 
motor car weighs 53 tons and the trailers weigh 44J^ tons. Each has 
a seating capacity of 64. They are provided with steam and electric 
heat, are lighted both by electricity and by Pintsch gas and have rather 
an unusual feature in being provided with two electric fans for cooling 
them in summer-time. The cars accelerate at the rate of 1 . 2 miles per 
hour per second. 

The actual work of construction on this system was begim in the 
spring of 1904, the work on the transmission lines and working conduc- 
tors being started early in 1905. The electric service was started by 



132 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

running four trains out on November 11, 1906, an all-electric service 
was put on at the end of April 1907, and the last steam train was taken 
off the regular rim on July 1, 1907. While the actual electrification of 
existent tracks into the terminal is complete, the outer zone of the 
electrification is still in process of installation and the very extensive 
terminal improvements are only partially completed. 

Despite the disadvantage under which the system is working, a re- 
duction in the expense of working, a reduction in the number of dead 
movements, and a reduction in the total minutes late per month of trains, 
have been effected. The locomotives are handling heavier loads than 
they figured upon originally. However, after a service lasting several 
hours, they only handle about one-half their short-time capacity on 
account of heating resistances. For switching service it has been found 
necessary to add additional resistance to the locomotives. We were 
assured by the officials that the operation of this terminal has been 
satisfactory and without serious derangement at any time. Their most 
serious difficulty was with a short circuit where sufficient cm^rent did 
not flow to open the circuit-breaker, the breakers being set to drop only 
when large quantities of current passed through them, on accoimt of 
the requirements of heavy trains. This has been taken care of by carry- 
ing a pilot wire in the insulation of each cable. In the case of a short 
circuit, this pilot wire fuses and throws out an auxiliary breaker at the 
sub-station, when the main breaker is thrown out. An additional safety 
device has been installed in the tunnel in the shape of a cord along the 
timneL wall. In case of accident, anyone, preferably the conductor, 
may pull this cord and cut off the current from the system so that there 
is little danger of the passengers suffering in case they abandon a train 
in the tunnel after a wreck. Anyone may cut off the current, but an 
order from the load-despatcher is required before it can be put back on. 
There has been no disorganization of the operating force incident to 
the electrification. The electric department is organized as a separate 
department whose fimction it is to deliver current to the train. Its 
relation to the regular force is much the same as that of a company 
which supplies us with electric light. The operating department simply 
puts its locomotives or motor cars out on the line and picks up the cur- 
rent for running, — operating under old rules and conditions to a large 
extent. A separate electrical right-of-way maintenance gang is used. 
There is no particular alteration of the maintenance system of the 
track. Secondary and freight tracks have not yet been electrified, for 
the reasons noted at the beginning of this section. There has been 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 133 

a very large insurance against interruption, there being practically a 
triplication of power supply. Two power-houses, each large enough to 
handle the full load, are provided and there is also sufficient battery 
capacity to take care of the full load for 24 hours. This was installed, 
according to the best information we could get, (1) to insure against 
every possible derangement; (2) to afford capacity enough to take care 
of freight traffic when freight trackage shall be electrified; (3) in ex- 
pectation of having to supply the New Haven with a large amount of 
current. Up to the time of our visit, only two employees had been 
killed on accoimt of the electrical equipment. The rail is very well 
protected and every possible safeguard adopted for the apparatus. At 
the station platforms, dummy guards are provided to keep people 
from coming in contact with the third-rail shoe. 

Mr. Wilgus, in a paper read before the American Society of Civil 
Engineers, on this electrification, on March 18, 1908, stated that the 
electrification is fully accompHshing the purposes which led to its adop- 
tion, namely, '^(1) abolition of nuisances incident to the steam loco- 
motive, and (2) increased capacity of the Grand Central terminal a full 
year in advance of the date fixed by law, and in addition (3) the promise, 
with the completion of the changes, of a saving in the cost of operation 
of from 12% to 27%, after providing for increased capacity for elec- 
trification, and (4) the outlook for a large future growth of remimer- 
ative traffic and other sources of revenue attendant to the usage of elec- 
tricity, much more than sufficient to provide for the increased capital 
charges for the other improvements." 

Mr. Wilgus was later quoted in the Street Railway Journal of March 
28, 1908, to the effect that the New York Central would save $200,000 
a year by using their own power for fighting, and $114,000 a year by 
switching during non-peak loads. In the discussion of the paper of Mr. 
Wilgus above quoted, he closed his discussion with the statement that 
the system gives promise of substantial economies in operation which, 
it is believed, will approximate $750,000 annually when the whole elec- 
trification shall have been put into operation.. 

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD RAILWAY 

This road is easily the pioneer in electrical traction applied to steam 
roads in the United States. The road has perhaps the largest propor- 
tion of passenger traffic to total traffic in the United States. It covers 
pretty thoroughly the southern part of New England, runs through a 
thickly populated territory, and has a number of towns of considerable 



134 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

population at short distances along its route. This railroad early had 
electrical roads enter into competition and electrified several of its 
branch lines partly to hold its traffic and partly as an experiment to 
determine the possibilities of electrical working applied to a road oper- 
ated under steam-railroad conditions. Later, when its traffic route into 
the Grand Central terminal compelled it to pro\dde for the operation 
of its trains into the terminal by electricity (on account of an act of the 
legislature), the New Haven did not content itself with merely pro- 
viding for the terminal operation, but treated the question as a general 
problem and electrified its lines from their junction with the New 
York Central electrical zone out to Stamford, and it- is the announced 
intention of the officials of this road to convert their entire system 
between New York and Boston into an electrical road. 

In addition, the New Haven has seen the value of co-operation with 
local electric trolley roads in order that the same might serve as feeders 
for their main-line traffic and has entered into a policy of systemat- 
ically acquiring the roads which drain the traffic adjacent to their 
territory and of working these roads as adjuncts to their system. The 
trend of the New Haven seems to be toward electrically equipping their 
line and operating all classes of traffic by electricity and possibly to util- 
izing certain portions of their track between towns for the passage of 
interurban cars from town to town, which, upon reaching the outskirts 
of a town, will enter the local street-railway tracks, thus landing the 
passenger at the door of the place to which he wishes to go. That they 
were early awake to the possibilities of electric traction is shown by the 
report of Charles P. Clark, president of this road in 1891, — that the only 
effectual way of checking electric-railway competition was to equip the 
lines affected with electric traction. He advocated equipping a branch 
line to demonstrate what could be done with electric traction on a 
standard steam railroad. 

In the year 1894, the management of the New Haven authorized 
the introduction of electrification on their Nantasket Beach branch, and. 
this was the first installation of electric traction on a standard steam 
road. The Nantasket Beach line was a line debouching from one of 
their secondary lines rimning southeast from Boston, then north up a 
peninsula along Nantasket Beach, a seaside resort. The electrification 
of this line was completed on May 20, 1895. It comprised 6.95 miles 
of double track, extending from Nantasket Junction to Pemberton. 
It was equipped with overhead-trolley center-pole-bracket construction 
originally, on which a 600-volt direct current was carried. The power- 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 135 

house was located at the middle of the route, and contained two 250 
horse-power Green-Corliss engines. The rolling-stock consisted of stan- 
dard passenger coaches equipped with motors hauling a variable number 
of trailers. The original equipment comprised 6 motor passenger cars 
and 4 motor express cars, the trailing equipment being their standard 
steam equipment. Some cars were equipped with two and others with 
four 125 horse-power motors, the motor cars being capable of hauling 
a train weighing from 400 to 500 tons total at a maximum speed of about 
35 miles an hour, and at an average speed of about 16 miles an hour. 
Both steam and electric trains were used on the line. The results being 
satisfactory, it was decided to electrify other branches and in 1896 the 
Nantasket and East Weymouth line was constructed. Later the elec- 
trification was extended from Nantasket Jimction to Braintree, and in 
1899, from Braintree to Cohasset. The latter line extended over a 
route 11.51 miles in length and was a double-track road. A third rail 
was installed, the third rail of A-section being carried on wooden insu- 
lators in the middle of the track. The rail was interrupted at crossings 
and an overhead trolley installed at such points. Standard passenger 
coaches equipped with motors were employed upon the line. The oper- 
ation of the Nantasket Junction and Braintree section was somewhat 
troublesome because the track was used both by steam and electric 
trains. The insulation was poor, there was considerable leakage and 
the ashes from the locomotives were being continually dumped on the 
third rail. The entire mileage of this section to Nantasket Beach and 
tributary coimtry was 40 miles, the route length being 20 miles. In 
1904, the third rail was taken up on the Nantasket Junction and Brain- 
tree section and the line given over to steam traction. 

The high-speed trolley lines along the beach (owned by the New 
Haven) have been retained, however. Considerable of their traffic fell 
off when Nantasket Beach was acquired by the Commonwealth of 
Massachusetts. This beach was turned into a public reserve, and a 
good deal of the attractiveness to excursion crowds was removed by 
the ousting of various amusement enterprises. Consequently, in ad- 
dition to the electrical system being antiquated, it is probable that the 
traffic decreased so largely that it no longer was dense enough to support 
an electrical system. 

Because of the success of the Nantasket Beach electrification, the 
Berlin-New Britain branch of the New Haven road was electrified, the 
substitution being started in March, 1897, and completed in 1898. This 
line, as originally installed, was about 12 miles long, a 3-mile double- 



136 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

track section being first equipped. A third rail carried in the middle 
of the track was installed, the rail being broken at crossings. Their 
first equipment comprised 5 electric motor coaches hauling standard 
passenger trailers. In 1905, objection was raised by the authorities 
of New Britain to the third rail as it was regarded as a menace to public 
safety and the railroad was compelled to discontinue its use in August 
1906, by a court decree. As the rail was totally unprotected, the 
authorities were probably justified in having it removed. It would 
be interesting to know what would have been the attitude of the 
authorities had a protected third rail been substituted. 

In 1895, the section between Hartford and Bristol, Connecticut, 
was electrified, a double-track line of 18.6 miles being equipped. An 
tmprotected third rail similar to their other installations was adopted. 
In June 1905, this third rail was removed as it was considered a menace 
to pubhc safety and as it was also high in upkeep. 

In 1898, the electrification of their Stamford-New Caanan branch 
was undertaken by the New Haven, comprising 8 miles of single track. 
An overhead-trolley system was installed operating on direct current, 
a pole-bracket construction being adopted, standard passenger coaches 
equipped with motors being put on the line. In the summer of 1908, 
this line was changed to a single-phase installation, their standard volt- 
age of 11,000 carried on the main line being adopted for the system, and 
a single-catenary-suspension system being adopted. It is apparently 
their policy to change such systems into single-phase systems as fast 
as their main-line electrification comes into connection with them. 
Although the installations on these lines were primitive, their work- 
ing was successful and drew general attention to the possibihties of 
electric traction applied to steam railways. 

In 1900, Col. Heft, their electrical engineer, read a paper before the 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, in which he discussed elec- 
tric traction for steam railways and gave the results which had been 
obtained on these branches. Notwithstanding an increase in the num- 
ber of stops, there was an increase in the schedule speed. On the 
Nantasket Beach line the figures were: 

Length of No. of Schedule Time, Average Speed, 
Line, miles Stations minutes miles, per hour 

Steam, 1894 6.95 10 25-35 16.7toll.9 

Electric, 1897 6 . 95 16 21 19.81 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 137 

The traffic under the better facilities afforded, increased as follows: 

Nantasket Beach 304,292 702,419 

Highland 387,695 1,060,617 

Berlin 267,936 241,207 

New Canaan 98,302 184,728 

The cost per train mile on the Berlin and Highland Division was given 
as follows: 

Daily Cost per 

Train Miles Train Mile 

Berlin Division 66 30 . 3 cents 

Highland Division 737 12 . 5 cents 

The motive-power cost on these divisions under electric operation and 
under steam operation is as follows, this cost including the operation 
and the maintenance of power-station, the maintenance of motors and 
of car-equipment, the supply of oil, grease, and water, and the wages 
paid at the power-house: 

Steam locomotive 0. 19 to 0.24 per train mile 

Highland Division 0.0604 per train mile 

Nantasket Beach . 1441 per train mile 

New Canaan . 0783 per train mile 

Berlin . 1406 per train mile 

Total cost of operation per train mile with motor cars was : 

Berlin . 3032 per train mile 

Highland . 1255 per train mile 

Nantasket Beach . 2925 per train mile 

New Canaan . 1754 per train mile 

And the cost for train labor: 

Berlin . 18 per train mile 

Highland 0.027 per train mile 

Nantasket Beach .0829 per train mile 

New Canaan . 063 per train mile 

Steam (about) . 12 per train mile 

At the time of the undertaking of the electrification of its main line, 
the New Haven had in operation under electricity the following mileage : 

Total Miles Mileage Between 
Division Single Track Terminals 

Providence, Warren & Bristol 44 33 

Stamford & New Canaan 9 8 

Nantasket Beach 40 20 

Hartford & Bristol 26 20 



138 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Following the inception of the New York Central electrification into 
its Grand Central terminal, the New Haven road announced that it 
would install an electrical system on its main line. It was proposed to 
provide for the electrification of six tracks, the line being composed 
of four tracks at the time. The proposed electrification was to cover 
the line from the entrance of the New Haven trains into the New 
York Central zone at Woodlawn (12.03 miles from Grand Central 
Station) out to Stamford (33.48 miles from Grand Central Station), 
extending over 21.45 miles of four-track line. This was carried out 
as proposed. 

The single-phase system was used on this installation and it is the 
largest and best installation of this type in the world. Power is gen- 
erated at a turbine station located at Cos Cob, near the eastern end of 
the electrification. The station is equipped with three 3,000-kilowatt 
11,000-volt 25-cycle Parsons- Westinghouse turbo-generator sets, gen- 
erating single-phase current for supply to the working conductors. A 
fourth generating set supplying three-phase current for the power-circuit 
has been recently added. The working conductors are carried from a 
double-catenary suspension on steel bridges spanning the tracks. These 
bridges are installed at intervals of 300 feet on tangents and at less 
intervals on curves as local conditions demand. They are of steel lat- 
tice-work construction, the posts at the ends being supported on con- 
crete footings. The bridges for the greater part of the distance are 
made long enough to include six tracks, although only four tracks are at 
present installed. In some places the bridge only covers four tracks, 
while spans of as many as twelve tracks are covered by bridge work 
where demanded. Poles are installed on curves with pull-overs attached 
where required. The bridges carry, at their upper surface, insulators on 
which the messanger cables supporting the working conductors are 
carried. Two steel-wire messenger cables are used for the suspension of 
each working conductor. The messengers are of ^ inch 7-strand steel 
cable having an ultimate strength of 200,000 poimds per square inch, 
each strand being galvanized. The complete cable has a strength of 
33,800 pounds. The cables are pulled up so that the sag at the mean 
temperature is 6 feet in 300 feet length between bridges. The working 
conductor is suspended over the center of the track from the two mes- 
sengers by triangular hangers clamped at the apexes to the messenger 
wires and to the trolley wire. The messengers thus serve to prevent 
lateral sway as well as to hmit vertical motion. The working conductor 
is installed 22 feet above the rails, giving 3J^2 to 6 feet clearance over a 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 139 

man standing on the top of a car. The overhead construction is calcu- 
lated to be safe under all conditions and was so designed that the stress 
produced by a sheath of ice one-half inch in thickness, completely sur- 
rounding the cables, would only be one-sixth of the ultimate stress. 
Stresses due to wind have been figured on a basis of 16% pounds per 
square foot projected surface for cables and 25 pounds per square foot 
normal surface for flat surfaces; allowance being made for double wind- 
pressures in the summer, when the wind-storms are most severe. The 
intermediate bridges weigh 13,000 pounds each. These bridges are pro- 
vided with square posts at the ends. Every two miles there are provided 
anchor-bridges which are of a heavier construction, have a more solid 
foundation, and are provided with A-shaped end posts. The anchor- 
bridges weigh 23,000 pounds each. The ends of the bridges carry cross- 
arms for transmission and power-circuits. No feeder is necessary for the 
entire length of the circuit, the conductor over a track being, for all 
practical purposes, connected in series from one end to the other. Two 
auxiliary feeders, however, are carried the entire length of the track to 
feed the current around any isolated section. These are carried on op- 
posite sides of the bridges and are connected into the line at alternate 
anchor-bridges. The anchor-bridges are arranged, as far as possible 
to come at the end of blocks, the signal-semaphores being carried on the 
anchor-bridge structure. The signal-towers at the ends of anchor- 
bridges are utilized to afford attendance upon the apparatus carried 
upon the anchor-bridges. Section-insulators are inserted into the work- 
ing conductors at each anchor-bridge and the conductors are connected 
to each other, to the feeders, and to the other parallel conductors through 
buses carried on the anchor-bridge, passing through a circuit-breaker 
first. By tripping the breaker at the ends any section of track may 
have the current cut off from it. The messengers at strain-bridges are 
interrupted, the ends being fastened to heavy strain insulators. The 
entire conductor over one section of track, from one end to the other, 
is connected in series and all the conductors in a section are in parallel 
when all conductors are connected up. The strain-bridges carry circuit- 
breakers, lightning-arresters, and shunt-transformers for supplying the 
operating current for circuit-breakers and the signals. The auxiliary 
feeders connect into the buses at alternate bridges so that in case one 
section becomes disabled the other section can feed around it. Two 
power-feeders are carried on the bridges for working three-phase appara- 
tus along the hne, and provision is also made for a three-phase circuit 
on top of each post at the ends of the anchor-bridge, as later on power 



140 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

may be supplied to the local street railways owned by the New Haven 
Company in this territory. 

The line, of course, is entirely without sub-stations. When a circuit- 
breaker goes out on a bridge, it rings a bell and lights a lamp in a signal 
tower. The operator in the tower then puts it back into place by means 
of a switch which delivers current to an electric motor operating the 
breaker. The track is used as a return. At present the rails are bonded 
partly with outside bonds and partly with concealed bonds. Eventually 
all bonding will be concealed. A bond having a carrying capacity equal 
to the rail capacity is installed. Inductance bonds are installed at the 
end of every block and high-frequency low-voltage current is used to 
operate the signals. No underground or submarine crossings for con- 
ductors are employed. Where bridges over rivers occur, the wires are 
carried on towers sufficiently high to bring them clear of the masts of 
shipping, the train ordinarily floating across the gap, although a third 
rail carrying alternating current is installed in the short gap across the 
bridge, to which current can be turned on in case a train stalls on the 
bridge. 

Experience has proved that there is no necessity of providing for 
the isolation of conductors into two-mile sections, but that four miles 
would have been ample, and it is probable, should the New Haven extend 
its electrification, that succeeding installations would have breakers and 
similar apparatus installed every four miles instead of two. With the 
high voltage employed, (11,000 volts) there is no such thing possible as 
the circuit-breakers failing to operate in case of a short circuit. The 
current rises so quickly that the circuit-breakers pop out instanta- 
neously. With so much dead iron overhead and around the system, 
there is httle trouble from lightning; the desirability of lightning- 
arresters in the power-house, is even seriously questioned. 

Switch and storage yards are electrified at New Rochelle, Port Chester, 
and Stamford. At Port Chester a very ingenious and remarkably simple 
single-suspension system has been adopted. Posts are set up in pairs 
along the track, a catenary messenger cable spans the tracks between 
these posts from which hangers depend and rigidly suspend a straight 
cross-wire. These cross-wires in turn carry longitudinal catenary mes- 
sengers from which are suspended the working conductors. The two 
posts and cross-wires thus take the place of an expensive bridge. The 
system is rigid, simple, and cheap. Six tracks may be spanned by each 
pair of poles. Where there are more than six tracks, it is preferable 
to erect intermediate poles between the outside poles. However, only 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 141 

the outside poles need be guyed, the cross-wires giving the intermediate 
poles sufficient stability. The cost of construction is about one-half that 
of the regular construction and the erection, renewal, and up-keep about 
one-half. The use of this system is contemplated in yard construction 
and on secondary track. It may be used later on the main line if it is 
found desirable, but it is thought that it is somewhat light for use on 
tracks where high speeds are maintained. 

A marked improvement has also been made in the suspension of the 
line conductor. As originally installed, a succession of hard points 
where the conductor was gripped by the hangers were presented to the 
passage of the collector-shoe on the locomotive. The upward pressure 
of the locomotive shoe put kinks into the working conductor on each 
side of the hangers and these led to serious arcing on the collector. In 
the new construction, a cheap steel wire as a working conductor is sus- 
pended underneath the carrying conductor attached to it by means of 
clips at points intermediate between the hangers. The result is a per- 
fectly straight, flexible, wire which cannot kink. As the collector-shoe 
passes along it between hangers, the working conductor springs at its 
middle, and when the shoe comes under a clip, the carrying conductor 
affords the necessary spring. At the time of our visit, two tracks had 
been equipped with the new construction and two tracks with the old. 
We stood at the side of the line and noted the passage of a number of 
trains. There was considerable arcing with the old construction, 
while there was hardly a flash with the new. We should say that the 
operation of this new construction, so far as sparking is concerned, was 
perfect. The adoption of this construction will go a long way toward 
insuring permanency of the aerial system. The working conductor, 
because of its meeting the situation so perfectly, will be very durable. 
In addition, it can be very easily and cheaply replaced as it is made of 
cheap iron wire to begin with, and to replace it, it is merely necessary 
to take off the clips and stick a new wire on in place of the old. In case 
a portion of it is torn down, it may be even left off for a while, the 
locomotive running on the conductor originally installed. 

Haulage is done by means of electrical locomotives. The locomotives 
under contract requii'ements, were to handle 200-ton trains with stops 
every 2.2 miles and run at a schedule speed of 26 miles per hour, this 
giving a maximum speed of 45 miles per hour. It was also provided 
that the locomotives should haul this train from 60 to 70 miles per hour 
on long runs, and a 250-ton train at 60 miles per hour. As a matter 
of fact, on tests, the locomotives successfully handled 300-ton trains on 



142 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

200-ton requirements. The bulk of the New Haven trains are of moder- 
ate weight and, consequently, a locomotive of smaller capacity than the 
New York Central's locomotives was chosen; a machine of the capacity 
to give maximimi efficiency for hauling the ordinary New Haven train 
being purchased. The heavy trains are hauled by two locomotives 
double-headed. On long runs the New Haven locomotive, it is claimed, 
will haul fully as heavy trains as the New York Central locomotives, the 
long-run capacity of the New York Central locomotives being limited 
by heatuig of the resistances. The locomotives are fitted to operate 
both on high-tension alternating current and on the direct current sup- 
phed by the third rail over the New York Central terminal electrification, 
as the locomotives have to haul the New Haven trains out of the Grand 
Central terminal to Woodlawn, over the New York Central tracks. 
They are said by New Haven officials to make less speed than the New 
York Central locomotives withia the New York Central zone, but to 
make a higher speed when operating on their own system. The writer 
observed that on lea^dng the New York Central zone and getting on 
the alternating-current section, the locomotive was able to make very 
high speeds. 

The New Haven locomotives are equipped each with four single-phase 
motors carried by a quill suspension from the driving wheels. The 
motors are cooled by an air-blast supphed from a small motor-driven 
fan, this serving not only to keep the motor cool, but to prevent the 
entrance of dirt and other foreign matter tending to cause motor troubles 
which are Uable to run up maintenance charges. Current is collected 
from overhead by a shoe carried on a pantagraph kept in contact by 
springs tending to push the shoe upwards and puUed down out of contact 
by means of an air cylinder. The upward pressure on the shoe is about 12 
pounds, and the pantagraph has a range of 83^ feet. Shoes carried on 
the trucks are employed for collecting the third-rail current within the 
New York Central zone and an overhead pantagraph collector similar 
to those on the New York Central locomotives is also provided for tak- 
ing current from overhead when necessary in the New York Central 
zone. The high-voltage current is carried through a transformer inside 
the locomotive, where the voltage is transformed to the working voltage 
for the motor. The transformer is pro\dded with several outlet taps so 
that current at different voltages can be taken from it, thus affording a 
voltage control over the motor. A double-end multiple control is pro- 
vided for the locomotive. For operation within the terminal zone a com- 
plete set of direct-current control apparatus is provided with necessary 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 143 

resistances for the motor. There is a good deal of duplication in the 
locomotive equipment, leading to objectionable complication for a 
machine in ordinary operating hands. Some of the complication is due 
to a desire to provide against every possible interruption of traffic, even 
the air-compressors and motor ventilator fans being installed in dupli- 
cate, but the greater part of it arises from the necessity of providing 
suitable apparatus for operating over the direct-current zone of the New 
York Central, and in straight single-phase equipment could of course be 
eliminated. The locomotive is provided with means for pneumatically 
lowering or raising the third-rail contact-shoes, lowering or raising the 
pantagraphs, ringing the bell, and blowing the whistle, — these operations 
being effected by the pressing down of small knobs on top of the control- 
box. 

At present the locomotives carry an operator, a lookout, and an 
instructor. The instructor will be taken off shortly. Whether two men 
or one will be carried on each locomotive is a question for decision after 
sufficient operating experieijce has been gained. The operator regulates 
the speed of the locomotive by a chart that is just above the control, 
giving the number of amperes corresponding to the given speeds on each 
notch of the controller. Some difficulty has been experienced from 
keeping the operators from taking curves at too high speeds. High 
speeds are so easily attained that the operatives have a tendency to 
regard the locomotive as a plaything. The maintenance on these loco- 
motives has been pulled down to 3 cents per locomotive mile against 
about 8 cents for steam locomotives on this road. The locomotives 
accelerate at about .45 miles per hom^ per second. 

The New Haven have recently purchased several motor cars for use 
on their branch lines. These motor cars are equipped with 320-horse- 
power motors, have double-end control, and the apparatus with which 
they are equipped is very similar to the locomotive apparatus, except 
that no provision is made for direct-current working. These motor cars 
are designed to haul one or two standard passenger coaches as trailers, 
and are designed to have an acceleration of 1.6 miles per hour per 
second. 

The preUminary estimate for the cost of the electrification of the 
New Haven, was given out as follows: 

Power-house, including real estate $1,130,000 

Overhead construction, 21.45 miles route, 

four-track 570,000 

35 Locomotives 1,050,000 

$2,750,000 



144 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

The estimated saving per annum by electrical operation, is as follows: 

Ton Miles Tons Coal Tons Coal 

Service per Annum Steam Electric 

Express 592,242 57,477 29,870 

Local Express Ser- 
vice 348,000 58,300 28,600 

Freight Service. . . . 2,223,000,000 187,844 139,010 

Cost Coal Cost Coal Saving 

Service Steam Electric in Coal 

Express $183,830 $89,620 $94,210 

Local Express Ser- 
vice 186,560 85,800 100,760 

Freight Service. .. . 563,530 417,030 146,500 

Total saving $341,476 



Electric service into Grand Central Station from New Rochelle was 
begim July 5, 1907, with five trains a day each way, and complete elec- 
trical passenger service between Stamford and New York was put on 
in Jime, 1908. It was just about this time that we visited this road and, 
except for minor matters, foimd the system working well. We went 
over the entire length of the line and, through the kindness of the New 
Haven officials, were enabled to ride on the locomotives on each kind 
of run. To our personal observation, the locomotives were readily 
handled and easily operated. The motor commutators showed very 
little sparking on the locomotives on which we were. While certain of 
their trains were double-headed, we rode on one of their heaviest and 
fastest trains to which a single locomotive was attached, and with which 
schedule was maintained without difficulty. 

The New Haven is not handling its freight, as yet, by electricity, 
although electrical freight-handling is ultimately contemplated, and the 
presence of steam locomotives on the line in connection with the elec- 
trical locomotives is regarded as inimical to the upkeep of the line-con- 
struction. 

It is generally understood around New York, that the New Haven 
may arrange to connect by Long Island City, or by a subway down the 
eastern side of Manhattan Island, with the Pennsylvania system, and 
run its trains into the new Pennsylvania terminal now under construc- 
tion. Should this be the case, the New Haven freight would prob- 
ably go into Long Island City, and it seems reasonable to expect that 
the freight will then be handled by electricity. That the New Haven 
has planned for the electrical handling of its freight, we have been assured 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 145 

from reliable sources. In addition, the public estimates of savings on 
the New Haven, take into consideration the saving to be gained by the 
electrical handling of freight. 

In 1904, Mr. C. S. Mellen, president of the New Haven railroad, 
was quoted in an interview: " Looking ahead a very few years on such 
portions of systems as have eliminated these dangerous crossings, as, 
for instance, our line between New York and New Haven, I confidently 
expect to see the steam locomotive become in the nature of a curiosity.'' 

Mr. E. H. McHenry, vice-president of this railroad, discussed the 
handling of freight by electricity, in an article published in the Street 
Railway Journal of August 17, 1907. We quote his article extensively 
in the section on freight-handling. In this article, his statement, '^ to 
secure the fullest economy, it is necessary at least to extend the new 
service over the whole length of the existing engine stage or district 
and to include both passenger and freight trains," is significant. 

The New Haven has adopted a comprehensive plan of securing street- 
railway and interurban connections with its line so that these roads may 
be used as feeders to the larger system, and also that existent gaps in 
transportation routes afforded by the one system or the other can be 
filled in. Mr. C. S. Mellen, the president of this railroad, in his analyses 
of passenger-transportation problems, given to the press from time to 
time, has probably treated the subject more broadly, and with a larger 
eye to the future, than any other public official. He has proposed to 
electrify steam lines between towns to afford interurban service, and to 
connect these lines within towns with the local street-railway systems, 
so that the passenger may be delivered at his house-door. In apparent 
pursuance of this policy, in 1906, the New Haven obtained the right to 
add two tracks to its line and to run an interurban line on them from 
New Rochelle to Larchmont; and in 1907, their lines from Middletown 
to Berlin and to Meriden were converted to electric lines, and arrange- 
ments made to connect these lines at their terminals with the local street- 
railway lines; the lines forming practically a part of the system of the 
Consolidated Railway and Light Company, a New Haven property. 
These are single-track lines, the Middletown-Berlin section being 9.53 
miles long and the Westfield-Meriden section 7.21 miles long. The 
line-equipment is partly single-pole-bracket construction and partly a 
double-pole-span construction. 600-volt direct current is used, a No. 
0000 trolley wire being installed with a feeder connected into the trolley 
every 1,000 feet. In addition to being bonded, the track rails are con- 
nected to a return feeder every 1,200 feet. 



146 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Another of their branch steam hnes, connecting Hartford, Vernon, 
and Melrose, has been converted to an electric interurban road. This 
electrification was carried out in 1907. The route begins at Hartford, 
Conn., follows the tracks of the Hartford Street* Railway 23/2 niiles to 
East Burnside, where it is deflected to the steam-road right of way, 
connecting Hartford, Manchester, and Willimantic, and forming a part 
of the New Haven railroad's ^'Poughkeepsie Bridge to Boston" line. 
From East Burnside the electrification is carried out on the double track 
of the steam road through Buckland, Manchester, and Talcottville to 
Vernon Junction (10 miles), where the line swings north and passes to 
Rockville and Melrose over a single-track branch formerly operated by 
steam, 13 miles long. Direct-current equipment is used at 600 volts. 
Power is secured from the Hartford Street Railway Company's plant 
and carried to the sub-stations by an 11,000-volt three-phase trans- 
mission line. The line is equipped with a single-catenary construction 
with 3-point suspension, a ^-inch messenger being used and 150-foot 
spans employed. The track is bonded with No. 0000 cable bonds and 
cross-bonded every 2000 feet. 

Since the electrification of the New Haven's main line between 
Stamford and Woodlawn, the old electrified New Canaan branch from 
Stamford to New Canaan has been changed from a direct-current trolley 
line to an 11,000-volt single-phase line, to conform to the standard used 
on the main line. It is predicted that the New Haven railroad from 
New York to Boston will eventually be operated entirely by electricity. 
According to the Street Railway Journal, May 16, 1908, it is semi- 
officially asserted that the Stamford-New Haven lines would be 
electrified next. It is stated that Mr. Mellen said in March, 1906, that 
the New Haven would be electrified from Boston to Providence, after 
four-tracking and eliminating grade-crossings, if expectations should be 
met on the western end of the line. Mr. T. E. Byrnes, vice-president 
of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, in an interview 
printed in the Boston Herald, July 3, 1908, is quoted: 

^' We shall electrify our roads, every one of them, just as soon as we 
are satisfied that our system of electrification is what it should be. Of 
course, this is a big undertaking and will take a great deal of time. In 
the first place, all grade-crossings will have to be aboHshed, a work, by 
the way, which has already been in progress some time. The suburban 
lines, especially at points where the communities are large, will be first 
equipped, and the electrification will be carried out from section to 
section until we have substituted electricity for steam throughout our entire 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 147 

system from Boston to New York. We feel that the experimental stage 
of our electrical railroad is practically past and that our system has been 
demonstrated to he successful.^ ^ 

On Wednesday, April 8, 1906, speaking before the Boston Fruit and 
Produce Exchange, Mr. Byrnes stated that the New Haven's suburban 
lines within a 20-mile radius of Boston would be electrified within 
five or six years, if his company was allowed to control the Boston and 
Maine. He is quoted as follows: 

'' If this thing is allowed to go through, your suburban territory will 
be electrified and you will be able to come into Boston and pass from 
one depot to another by means of a tunnel. It has been said that our 
electrical experiments in New York have not been a success. They have 
been a success and we are going to adopt the same system on the suburban 
service here just as fast as it can he done.^^ 

LONG ISLAND RAILROAD 

The railroad is controlled by Pennsylvania interests and will event- 
ually be an adjunct of the Pennsylvania terminal system into New York. 
At the time of its equipment it was the largest electrification in the 
United States. The railroad rims from Brooklyn, east through the 
middle of Long Island to Montauk Point, with numerous north and south 
branches to the seaside resorts and suburban towns. Only the western 
end of the system is electrified. The main terminus of the road is in 
Long Island City opposite thirty-fourth Street in the Borough of Man- 
hattan, from which terminus only steam trains are despatched, although 
the power-house for the electrical working of this system is located at 
this point. The road has another important terminus at Atlantic and 
Flatbush Avenues in Brooklyn, from which a large suburban passenger 
traffic is derived. The road has a direct connection with the Brooklyn 
Rapid Transit Company's elevated railroad and hauls certain of that 
company's trains from Rockaway Beach. The Atlantic Avenue termi- 
nal is also connected with the recently opened extension of the New 
York Subway to Brooklyn and it is probable that a through service 
will be instituted by the Long Island railroad and the Interborough 
Rapid Transit Company. The Long Island railroad's line originally ran 
through a fanning section, but the growth of Brooklyn and Long Island 
City and the movement of population of Greater New York toward the 
suburbs, have turned the country traversed by the road into a succession 
of suburban towns. In addition, the road served three popular race- 
tracks and reached Rockaway Beach, besides going to a number of 



148 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

desirable residence towns such as Hempstead, Babylon, Oyster Bay, etc. 
Owing to a desire to abolish grade-crossings within the city, the city 
of Brookljni secured an agreement from the Long Island railroad on 
May 18, 1897, by which the road undertook to remove its tracks along 
Atlantic Avenue from the surface and to operate its passenger trains 
by a motor power not requiring combustion. This practically required 
the electrification of the Atlantic Avenue line, which was a double- 
track line extending from Flatbush Avenue along Atlantic Avenue to 
East New York. From thence it was four-tracked to Jamaica. The 
electrified section of the road at present passes through a timnel under 
Atlantic Avenue, thence by an elevated structure to the limits of the 
Borough of Brooklyn, and the remaining distance on the surface, — 
passing through numerous towns along its route with crossings at grade. 
At Woodhaven Junction, one line goes south to Rockaway Beach, while 
another line continues east and divides again into lines extending to 
Hempstead and to Valley Stream. The Une requu-ed to be electrified 
only extended to the hmits of the city of Brooklyn, but the road adopted 
the plan of electrifying to out-lying towns, believing that the better 
service offered would attract a sufficiently increased traffic to give a 
net profit on the investment. The initial electrification extended as 

follows ; 

Atlantic Avenue Line: 
Flatbush Avenue to Jamaica and thence to Bel- 
mont Park 14.12 miles 

Rockaway Division: 
From Woodhaven Junction to Rockaway Park . 8.53 miles 

Jamaica to Metropolitan race track. 2.6 " 

A total of 86 miles equivalent single trackage. 

The daily passenger- train service in and out of Long Island City, 
at the time the electrification was determined upon, consisted of 
425 trains of 2,500 cars; and at Flatbush Avenue, 266 trains com- 
prising 550 cars. It was estimated that there would be affected 
by the electrification 300 trains hauling 1,320 cars and the maxi- 
mum train movement contemplated one way in one horn* was 20 
trains carrying 135 cars. For this, a power-station equipment of 
16,500 kilowatts was installed. The through traffic to Montauk 
Point was left to be hauled by steam out of the Long Island 
terminal and the local traffic over the network of lines passing through 
submrban towns was designed to be handled by electricity. There is 
stiU a considerable steam service maintained to these towns. The busi- 
ness which it was primarily intended to handle by electricity, was com- 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 149 

posed of the suburban trains doing a heavy local business to Jamaica 
and other points and a very heavy exc\n:*sion business to Rockaway 
Beach and the race-tracks. This last business is responsible for a very 
fluctuating loading at different seasons of the year and on different days 
during a particular season, and the conditions are somewhat unfavorable 
to electrical working because it produces a low-load factor upon the 
electrical equipment. Nevertheless, it has been deemed advisable to 
handle it largely by electricity, although it is expected that the growth 
of the suburban towns to come later will serve to equaUze the traffic, 
and that the connections with the Pennsylvania electrification will also 
serve to steady the load. At present, extreme fluctuations are taken 
care of partly by a storage-battery installation at one plant and by port- 
able sub-stations which may be connected to the sections subject to an 
unusually heavy traffic. Extensive additional electrification is being 
continually carried on, and this will also help to steady it. When the 
Pennsylvania tunnels, into New York City and across to Long Island, 
are completed, the power house of the Long Island railroad will be 
increased to four or five times its present capacity and will carry the 
load of the Pennsylvania terminal in addition to the Long Island load, 
when the Long Island load will form a small part of the total station 
load, and even very large fluctuations on the Long Island will cause 
little disturbance of the total power-house load. 

The system originally installed on the Long Island was designed to 
afford a service of 15 six-car trains per hour each way, from Flatbush 
Avenue to Belmont Park; 3 six-car trains per hom^ each way, from 
Flatbush Avenue to Rockaway Park; and 2 four-c^r trains per hour 
each way, from Valley Stream to Hammel (the Valley Stream-Hammel 
line being a line running in an eastern direction from a station just 
short of Rockaway Park to Valley Stream, 8 miles distant) . 

The cars were adapted to be used over the Brooklyn Rapid Transit 
line or over the Interborough system (subway), a 600-volt direct cur- 
rent being supplied by a third rail. Power is generated in a power- 
station at Long Island City, containing three 5,500-kilowatt Westing- 
house-Parsons turbines, generating three-phase current at 11,000 volts. 
Upon the completion of the Pennsylvania timnels, the station will 
ultimately contain six units and an addition will be built to give a total 
capacity of thirteen 5,500-kilowatt units. Babcock and Wilcox boilers 
are employed, arranged on two floors, fed by automatic stokers. A 
direct-current turbine exciter set and a motor-generator exciter set 
supply the exciting current. A small storage battery is installed in the 



150 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

main power-station to furnish the exciting current in case of breakdown. 
The power-station is off the electrical center of gravity of the system 
and is not even located on the electrified section of the line, the location 
being made to be convenient, later, for the Pennsylvania electrification. 
All of the station current is carried out over five lines to a sub-station 
at Woodhaven Junction, near the center of the network, where it is 
distributed to the system. The current is carried over to the railroad 
yard in conduits, whence it passes to an overhead line running along 
the steam railroad tracks to Winfield, from which place it goes across 
country to Glendale on a special right of way and from Glendale Junc- 
tion it follows the railroad tracks to Woodhaven, where it enters the 
sub-station to be distributed. All overhead currents are carried by 
bare wires, Hghtning-arresters being installed in each sub-station and in 
specially erected arrester and cut-out houses at all points where wires 
pass from overhead to underground, or vice versa. The high-tension 
transmission lines from Woodhaven Jimction to the other sub-stations, 
in general, are overhead lines carried on steel poles. ^Tiere stretches 
of water are encountered (line to Rockaway Beach) the transmission 
line is carried as an armored submarine cable laid in a trench in the 
bottom of the harbor, excavated by a water jet Along the timnel 
sections of the line the transmission cables are carried in vitrified-tile 
ducts laid in cement in the walls of the tunnel or along the right of way 
at the edge of the track. Sub-stations are located as follows : 

1. Grand and Atlantic Avenues, Brooklyn. 

2. East New York. 

3. Woodhaven Junction. 

4. Near Rockaway Junction. 

5. Hammel. 

Woodhaven Junction is the largest of these sub-stations, containing at 
present three 1,500-kilowatt rotary converters and nine o50-kilowatt 
stationary transformers. Ultimately it will have six 1,500-kilowatt 
rotaries with the necessary complement of stationary transformers. 
The station at Grand Avenue contains three 1,000-kilowatt rotaries 
(\iltimately four 1,500-kilowatt rotaries), and nine 375-kilowatt static 
transformers. Rockaway Jimction contains two 1,000-kilowatt rotaries, 
(ultimately three 1,500-kilowatt rotaries), and six 375-kilowatt static 
transformers. East New York contains three 1,000-kilowatt rotaries 
(ultimately four 1,500-kilowatt rotaries), and nine 375-kilowatt static 
transformers. Hammel contains two 1,000-kilowatt rotaries (ultimately 
six 1,500-kilowatt rotaries), and six 375-kilowatt static transformers. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 151 

The Hammel sub-station is also supplied with a storage battery with a 
rating of 2,000-kilowatt hours, having been the largest storage battery 
in the world at the time of its installation. This battery was installed 
because the load on the Hammel station is more variable than on the 
other stations, and because the Hammel station is most liable to inter- 
ruption. It is situated on a peninsula just a little distance short of 
Rockaway Park and the transmission line makes two long crossings 
under water to reach it. In the winter time the load on the Hammel 
station is light and it is possible to shut down the rotaries for a good 
deal of the time and operate on the battery. During the summer 
months the Hammel station is subjected to very severe peak loads 
which the battery carries. 

The sub- stations are located at junction points where the concen- 
tration of load comes. They are substantial brick and steel build- 
ings of fire-proof construction and, with the exception of the Woodlawn 
and Hammel stations, are all very much alike in general arrangement. 
The rotaries and transformers are installed on the first floor, while the 
switch-boards are carried in two galleries, the main board being on one 
side and the high-tension on the other side of the building. The cellar 
contains a plenum chamber for carrying the air-blast to the trans- 
formers. The foundations for the rotary converters in the sub-stations 
are all made large enough to hold 1,500 kilowatt rotaries. As the traffic 
develops, the 1,000-kilowatt rotaries will be removed from the sub- 
stations in which they are installed and put in new stations on later 
electrifications, 1,500-kilowatt rotaries taking their places. In addition 
to the fixed sub-stations, the road is provided with portable sub- 
stations. These are steel cars which contain, each, one 1,000-kilowatt 
rotary and three 375-kilowatt static transformers, together with switch- 
board and control apparatus. The regular sub-stations have tracks 
in them and connections so that in case a heavy load is anticipated on 
one of the sub-stations, a portable sub-station can be set in on the 
tracks and connected up to the fixed sub-station. This was the method 
of handling the situation when the race-track crowds taxed the road 
capacity. It was customary to connect up one of these sub-stations 
to suitable connections near Belmont Park. During our visit to this 
railroad last summer, we found one of these sub-stations in use for 
. extension purposes, the Long Island railroad having just completed its 
electrification into Hempstead; the portable sub-station being employed 
until the regular one should be installed. 

The current is converted at the sub-stations into 600-volt current 



152 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

and led directly into the third rail. In general, no feeders are employed, 
the third rails gi^nng sufficient carrying capacity from station to station. 
At points where there is comphcated track work, resulting in a num- 
ber of short sections of third rail, switch-houses have been installed and 
a feeder led from the station to this switch-house and the current led 
to it from the various isolated sections of rail by short sections of cable. 
This arrangement is being done away with now and these small sections 
tied right into the third-rail line. Circuit-breaker houses were origi- 
nally installed every two miles, the rail being interrupted and the con- 
nection between adjoining ends made through circuit-breakers. It 
has been found that four miles is sufficiently close for these circuit- 
breaker houses and this spacing is adopted for the later construction. 
The third rail is 27 inches from the gauge line and 3J^ inches above the 
top of the track rail and is carried upon vitrified-clay insulators sup- 
ported at the ends of long ties. A wooden sheathing protects the rail 
throughout its entire length. This is composed of a 2-inch plank held 
four inches above the rail by brackets which are carried on wooden 
uprights outside the rail and attached to it by steel brackets. At station 
platforms an extra side-sheathing is added and a dummy sheathing is 
carried at the side of the track, at which there is no rail, to pro- 
tect passengers at the stations from coming in contact with the 
collector shoes. The third rail is a 100-pound rail in 33-foot lengths, 
to correspond with the track rail and be interchangeable with it. Some 
60-pound 'rail is used. The rails are bonded with four solid bonds hav- 
ing a carrying capacity of 1,650,000 cir. mil. The third rail is inter- 
rupted at station platforms and at highway crossings, the current 
being carried across by jumpers which are now installed in tile conduits, 
but were formerly simply buried in the ground. The jumpers are of 
500,000, 1,000,000, or 2,000,000 lead-covered cables, as may be -required. 
Each jumper-cable end has a copper lug sweated on it with fom- 400,000- 
circular-mil. copper cables attached (in the case of the 1,000,000-cir- 
cular-mil. jumpers), the terminals of these cables being expanded into 
holes drilled in the end of the rail, The track is bonded to serve as 
a return with the usual provision of impedance bonds at the ends of 
blocks, and is cross-bonded through impedance bonds every 1,500 feet. 
Past draw-bridges, submarine cables are installed between the ends 
of the track rails for the retm^n circuit. 

The trains on this road are composed of motor cars and trailers, in 
the ratio of three motor cars to two trailers, and trains vary in length 
from six to twelve cars. The original equipment comprised 130 motor 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 153 

cars, the cars being built of steel and similar to those used in the New 
York subway, each car weighing 83,000 pounds. Each motor car is 
equipped with two 200-horse-power motors, both being geared to the 
same truck. The cars are capable of a maximum speed of 55 miles per 
hour and of maintaining the schedule with stops 1 . 6 miles apart, of 25 
miles an hour. 

The electrification originally contemplated was to cover 86 miles 
of equivalent single-track mileage, but a total equivalent mileage of 
973^ miles was actually electrically equipped at first — over 42 miles 
of main-line track comprising 90 miles of equivalent single-track mileage 
and 7}/2 miles of sidings. This has since been considerably extended. 
The road has recently been granted the right to build a cut-off near 
Long Island City which will bring about the ehmination of all grade- 
crossings from Jamaica to Woodside and the electrification of the Ime 
between these points. The next line on the company program is that 
from Whitest one Landing to Port Washington. 

Work on the electrification of the Long Island railroad was begun in 
1903, the ground for the power-house being broken on September 15, 
of that year. The work on the sub-stations was begun the following 
summer, and on the transmission and third-rail system in the fall of 1904. 
The entire work was completed in the summer of 1905, the electric ser- 
vice being put into operation on June 26, 1905. 

In addition to its electrified section, the Long Island road supplies 
current to the Glen Cove railway, — a street-railway system from Glen 
Cove, five miles in length. This road was originally a direct-current 
road, power being purchased locally, but it was changed into a single- 
phase system because of the Long Island railroad being able to supply 
current to them (transmitted a distance of 27 miles) cheaper than the 
small local power-house could sell it. 

The operation of the railroad has been very successful, there having 
been little trouble with the electrical apparatus. The running time 
from Flatbush Avenue to Rockaway Park is five minutes less than 
under steam operation. The electrification has brought about a reduc- 
tion in the working expenses, but not enough as yet to pay the carrying 
charges on the investment, — owing to a good deal of the installation 
being to care for larger future demands. The freight traffic and pas- 
senger traffic originating at Long Island City, together with all through 
traffic, is handled by steam. For a while two electrical locomotives 
belonging to the Pennsylvania system were operated on the line on 
freight-switching, as an experiment, but they were afterward sent to the 



154 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

West Jersey & Seashore railroad, another electrified road controlled by 
the Pennsylvania system. The annual report of 1907 states: 

^^Its workings during the year have been very successful and the 
service has been reliable and efficient in every respect, and, while it has 
not yet been economical owing to the fact that your power is not fully 
employed, it has materially increased your passenger traffic." 

In addition, the report refers to the plans for the electrification from 
Long Island City to Port Washington and to Whitestone Landing; and 
to a plan, as soon as the East River tunnels are completed, of electrifying 
from Long Island City to Jamaica and Woodhaven Junction by way of 
the Glendale cut-off, a connection between the main fine, the Montauk 
division, and the Rockaway Beach division. 

WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE RAILROAD 

This road is controlled by the Pennsylvania interests. It runs from 
Camden, N. J., just across from Philadelphia, to Atlantic City, — a dis- 
tance of about 65 miles. The Pennsylvania controls two lines carrying 
local traffic between Philadelphia and Atlantic City, of which this was the 
most severely taxed. It was electrified in order to get a greater train 
movement over the line and for reasons of economy. It is possible, 
also, that the line may have been electrified to partly shut off interurban 
competition, for when the charter was granted to the Delaware River & 
Atlantic City Railway Company, it was annoimced that a four-track 
electric road would be built from Philadelphia to Atlantic City, although 
the line was not so constructed. It is the first example of the electri- 
fication of an express service on a through line, aside from terminal con- 
siderations, in the United States. 

The work was carried out in a very short time, the General Electric 
Company being given the contract for the equipment in November, 1905, 
and scheduled electric service begun on the road October 18, 1906. The 
electrified line comprises about 150 miles of single track. The road is 
double-tracked over the line from Camden, by way of Newfield, to 
Atlantic City (65 miles,) three- tracked from Camden to Woodbury and 
single-track from Newfield to Millville (10 miles). To provide for the 
electrification, the track was largely rebuilt, a new signal system was 
installed, and new fences, cattle guards, culverts, and bridges in general 
installed. Some new telegraph and telephone equipment was provided 
and a number of station changes made, new terminal stations being built 
at both ends. The entire work involved an expenditure of between 
$2,000,000 and $3,000,000. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 155 

The line is of a standard 600-volt direct-current third-rail con- 
struction from Camden to Atlantic City, except for 4 . 4 miles from Had- 
don Avenue to South Gloucester, where the track passes through city- 
streets at grade and an overhead trolley is used. An overhead trolley 
is installed on the branch from Newfield to Millville. In addition, the 
Atlantic City & Seashore railway uses the West Jersey & Seashore 
tracks for four miles of its route. This is a local street-railway system 
starting at the Board Walk in Atlantic City, connecting with the West 
Jersey & Seashore tracks, running four miles west on this track and 
then branching out to Somers Point. It takes its current from an over- 
head trolley, except on the West Jersey & Seashore section, where 
current is taken from the third rail. 

The power-house contains turbo-generators of 6,000-kilowatt com- 
bined capacity, current being generated at 6,600 volts at the power-house 
and stepped up to 33,000 volts, at which voltage it is delivered to the 
transmission lines. At the sub-stations this is converted into 650-volt 
direct-current for supplying the third rail. The transmission line is in 
duplicate, chestnut poles being set up 125 feet apart, carrj^ing six No. 
1 B. & S. gauge bare copper wires for the transmission lines, a 7-strand 
steel cable ^-inch in diameter being strimg over the top of the wires 
for lightning protection. This transmission line was erected at the rate 
of 2 miles a day. The third rail is a 100-pound rail, so chosen that it 
might be interchangeable with the track rail. It has a conductivity 
equivalent to l,200,000-cir.-niil. copper. It is protected only at 
stations, it is without feeders, and is sectionalized midway between 
sub-stations, the east and west bound third rails being inter-connected 
at their ends, and midway between stations, no feeders being installed. 
The trolley section of the road is double-track span construction; poles 
placed 100 feet apart; trolley wire being No. 0000 copper and the span 
wire being ^-inch galvanized steel. Two 750,000-cir.-mil. feeders are 
supplied for the trolley section. Lightning-arresters are placed on poles 
at every 1,000 feet on the trolley section. The track is bonded in the 
usual manner to serve as a return circuit. Inductance bonds have a 
resistance per block equal to 40 feet of third rail. 

Multiple-unit trains are used on the road, the motor cars each being 
equipped with 200-horse-power motors. The service contemplated was 
to put on a 3-car train every 15 minutes between Camden and Atlantic 
City, this train to make 64 miles in 80 minutes without stops. In addi- 
tion, a 2-car half-hourly schedule was planned for locals and a lO-minute 
2-car service between Camden and Woodbury (83^ miles). FuU service 



156 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

calls for 58 cars in operation on the line at a time, and at present 
54 trains per day each way are run, instead of 25 with steam. The 
traffic is increasing and an additional equipment is contemplated. A 
report, recently made public, shows that for the first year of operation, 
there has been an increase of through traffic, and an increase in strictly 
local traffic of 19.54%. against 1.85% for the preceding year. 

PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD 

The Long Island railroad and the West Jersey & Seashore railroad 
just described, are controlled by Pennsylvania interests. The initial 
venture of the Pennsylvania into electrical traction was in 1895, when 
the Board of Directors authorized an installation of electric traction on 
the Bordentown & Mt. Holly branch of the Amboy division. This was 
completed in July 1895, and comprised 7.66 miles of double-track line 
from Bordentown to Mt. Holly, an overhead-trolley direct-current in- 
stallation being provided. A motor car equipped with two 75-horse- 
power motors hauled a standard coach over the line. 

The Pennsylvania is at present engaged in the building of a terminal 
into New York City, which is one of the largest engineering projects of 
the present day. A double-track tunnel wiU pass under the Hudson 
River into their terminal in the heart of Manhattan Island and the tracks 
then carried under the East River through a double-track tunnel to 
Long Island City, where connection will be made to the Long Island 
railroad, and on the outskirts of which a large storage and terminal yard 
will be built. It will be necessary to operate the trains hauled into this 
tunnel by electricity, and the present power-house installation of the 
Long Island railroad wiU serve as a nucleus for the power-house equip- 
ment required for this electrification. When this is completed, it will 
be one of the most important electrifications in the world. 

The Pennsylvania is at present experimenting to determine the 
system which they shaU install. For these experiments they have had 
built three electric locomotives, one of which is a geared locomotive to 
operate on direct current; the second is a gearless direct-current loco- 
motive which is equipped with four 350-horse-power motors and weighs 
about 100 tons. The third is an alternating-current, gearless, single- 
phase locomotive similar to those used on the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford railroad. The complete single-phase locomotive is composed 
of two duplicate halves coupled together, and has a total weight of 145 
tons. Each section is equipped with four 500-horse-power motors, there 
being 4,000 horse-power comprised in the whole imit. It is intended 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 157 

to use a voltage of 300 volts at the motor commutators. The loco- 
motive is designed with the idea of getting speed on the 2% grade in 
the tunnel. It has made 73 miles per hour on a test-track at Pittsburgh 
and is capable of making 90 miles per horn' on a straight track. 24,000- 
pounds draw-bar pull has been developed with one section. At present, 

5 miles of the Long Island railroad, east of Garden City, is being 
equipped with single-phase equipment by the Pennsylvania for experi- 
mental work with this locomotive. 

WEST SHORE RAILROAD 

The West Shore is one of the New York Central lines used largely 
for freight, and is controlled by the Vanderbilt interests. Several years 
ago the Vanderbilt capital began to be interested in trolley roads in Cen- 
tral and Western New York, it being generally understood that the money 
was being put into these roads partly as an investment, partly to secure 
them as feeders for the Vanderbilt roads, and largely to insure their 
operation being friendly to the Vanderbilt roads. In 1905, a double- 
track section of the West Shore, 3.17 miles long, between Frankfort and 
Herkimer, N. Y., was equipped for electrical working to supply a link 
in the Utica & Mohawk Valley system and used in joint operation by 
steam cars of the West Shore and electric cars of the Utica & Mohawk 
Valley, the link fiUing a gap in the Vanderbilt trolley roads and giving 
them a chain of trolleys from Rochester to Little Falls, a distance of 
160 miles. This link has rather a curious history. 

Before the Utica & Mohawk Valley got into the field, the electrical 
service in this section was afforded by the Herkimer, Mohawk, Ilion & 
Frankfort Electric Railway Company, a single-track line built in the 
highways. The Utica & Mohawk VaUey purchased it and began to 
reconstruct the hne as a double-track line on a private right of way, in 
order to establish a high-speed interurban service. The villages of Ihon 
and Mohawk refused to give them the right to double-track their road 
except under onerous conditions. Meanwhile, the Utica & Mohawk 
Valley opened negotiations with the West Shore which were satisfactor- 
ily consummated, the result being the electrification of that line between 
Herkimer and Frankfort and the running aroimd the outskirts of Ilion 
and Mohawk, connecting tracks having been built between the Utica 

6 Mohawk Valley and the West Shore to form a cut-off. 

The equipment of this short electrified section was with a direct-cur- 
rent trolley -wire, suspended from a single-catenary messenger. The 
trolley is of No. 0000 copper, the catenary of g^inch steel cable, covered. 



158 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

The trolley is carried 24 feet above the top of the rail. The whole equip- 
ment cost somewhat mider $75,000. This track is used in common by 
steam and electric trains and the electrical working was officially opened 
December 14, 1905. 

The Utica & Mohawk Valley, the Oneida railway, and the West 
Shore made a further agreement whereby the latter agreed to relinquish 
all passenger traffic between Utica and Syracuse, reserving the right to 
haul freight over the road by steam. The New York Central with four 
tracks and the West Shore with two tracks are practically parallel 
between Albany and Buffalo. Consequently, the Vanderbilt interests 
have, in general, nm the bulk of the passenger traffic over the New York 
Central tracks, putting a moderate number of passenger trains on the 
West Shore, but giving the road a large freight traffic. WTien the inter- 
urbans began to parallel the New York Central and competition from 
them grew strong, the latter' s local traffic began to fall off. Conse- 
quently, the New York Central interests, after acquiring a number of 
electric roads, determined to fill in the gaps and offer the best interurban 
service in the section, as well as the best steam service, in order to pre- 
serve their monopoly of the traffic. This section between Utica and 
Syracuse formed the longest gap in the system, and a decision was 
made to electrify this section of the West Shore to fill the gap. 

The Oneida company being the most convenient local Vanderbilt 
company to handle the matter, the electrification of the West Shore road 
was turned over to it and the work was actually carried out by the Oneida 
company. The distance from Syracuse to Utica is 43 miles. Owing to 
the different classes of trains it was proposed to run, namely, steam 
freight, and steam through passenger trains and the West Shore electrical 
locals and electrical express trains, it was necessary to add extra track- 
age to the existing double-track road, in order to provide for trains meet- 
ing and passing without delay. 8.8 miles of third track were added to 
allow the passage of trains and 4.6 miles of fourth track were added for 
the same purpose and for freight storage. Thus, the electrification 
extends over 

30.515 miles two-track. 
8.843 miles three-track. 
4.582 miles four-track. 



Total, 43.940 miles of route, and 105.887 miles electrified. 

A third-rail 600-volt direct-current standard construction has been 
adopted. Power will be bought eventually from the Hudson River 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 159 

Electric Power Company, and will be supplied from this company's 
hydraulic plant at 60,000 volts. Until the Hudson River company has 
its hydraulic plant completed, the power will be supplied from a tem- 
porary steam plant. There are iour sub-stations located as follows: 

1. Clark's MHls. 

2. 13/^ miles west of Vernon. 

3. 1 mile west of Canastota. 

4. Manlius Center. 

Distance between sub-stations, 10^ miles. 

The transmission hne is carried on steel towers, the conductors being 
No. 0000 stranded copper. The third rail is an under-running 70-pound 
steel rail of the New York Central type. It is, however, of ordinary 
steel and not specially low in carbon and manganese, as required by the 
larger electrifications. It has a conductivity equivalent to 1,023,000 
cir. mils, of copper. In places the protective sheathing of the rail is 
composed of indurated fiber instead of wood. The rail is without feeders 
and there is no cross-connecting. 

Two-car trains are run, two trains being run each way each hour» 
The trains leave the West Shore tracks in Utica and Syracuse and run 
over the local street-railway tracks. 

The work was begun in 1906 and opened to traffic in the summer of 
1907. 

BALTIMORE & OHIO RAILROAD 

In order to get rid of smoke and gases in tunnels encountered in its 
passage through Baltimore, the Baltimore & Ohio railroad, in 1895, 
electrified its section of track through Baltimore, the service being inaug- 
urated in August of that year. The electrification extends from Camden 
Yard to Waverly, over 3.4 miles of double track. The distance includes 
7 curves of from 5 degrees to 11 degrees and is on a grade of 1 to 1.5%. 
The route passes through 7 tunnels of from 400 to 9,000 feet in length. 
The longer tunnels are as follows: 

1. 9,000 feet, 1 % grade. 

2. 2,000 feet 1.4% grade. 

3. 2,500 feet 1.5% grade. 

4. 4,500 feet 0.8% grade. 

There are between 300 and 400 trains a day through the tunnels, the 
passenger trains stopping usually at three stations along the route. 

The electric locomotives are used on what is practically a "pusher " 
service. The steam engines are left on the head of the trains and the 
east-bound trains are pushed through the tunnel by the electric loco- 



160 ELECTRIFICATIOX OF RAILWAY TERMXALS 

motives. The west-bound trains di'ift thi'ough the tunnel on the down 
grade, — the electric locomotive usually returning hght, after pushing a 
train through the timnel. Both passenger and freight trains are so 
handled, special low-speed, geared locomotives having recently been 
purchased for the freight sendee. 

Current is supphed at 600 volts, du'ect cmrent being used. Originally 
the current was supphed to the locomotive through an aerial conductor. 
This was formed of two Z-shaped rails supported by a bridgework and 
protected by a sheet -iron canopy. The cmTent was collected by a shoe 
reaching through a slot between the webs of the Z's and shding along the 
upper sides of the lower webs. This was subjected to severe corrosive 
action from the locomotive gases and became so badly run down that it 
was taken down and replaced by a thu'd-rail along the outside of the 
track, it being estimated that the third-rail maintenance would be less 
than that of the overhead conductor. The third rail is protected in the 
tunnels by a plank set on edge on each side, the upper edge being shghtly 
above the top of the rail. At the Union Station the train-platform 
flooiing is canied over the thuxl rail so as to leave only a slot about an 
inch in width above the top of the rail through which the web of the 
coUector-shoe passes. At Mt. Royal Station, the rail is discontinued 
past the station: traius floatiag across the gap. A rather unusual feature 
is the installation of an electrified rail between two of the tracks at a bad 
cross-over, so arranged that it may be hoisted by a lever from the signal- 
tower to afford a contact with the collector-shoe of the locomotive in 
case the locomotive should get stuck at poiats on the cross-over, where 
the contiQuity of the third rail is interrupted. In this particular case it 
was cheaper to install the conductor in. this way than to put it overhead 
and eciuip the locomotives with overhead collector-shoes: and as it very 
rarely happens that a locomotive stops in. a position where it wotild be 
unable to coUect the cm-rent from any of the other sections of the rail, 
the adcUtional duty imposed upon the man ia the signal-tower is very 
shght. 

The power-house is an antiquated affair equipped with small units 
exhausting at atmospheric pressm*e. In addition, some of the enguies 
are high-speed engines. The economy with such an equipment cannot 
be yery good. Two storage batteries are in use, one at the power- 
plant and one at the Union Station. These storage batteries are of 
great use in enabling the company to maintain its service, as the 
power-house capacity is small and the power-house cannot of itself 
keep up the train movement dtuing the hea^der periods. The storage 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 161 

batteries are badly run down after four years use. Undoubtedly, with 
a modern power-installation, the showing made at the Baltimore terminal 
would be much better. Unfortunately, space limitations prevent the 
modernizing of the power plant. 

The locomotives have a free-ruiming speed of 20 miles per hour and 
can move a 3,000-ton train on a level, clean track, requiring 2,200 am- 
peres of current at 560 volts, this decreasing to 900 amperes when a speed 
of 10 miles per hour is reached. They are capable of moving 1,400 tons 
on a 1% grade. The earliest locomotives were of the gearless type, 
weighing 96 tons each; the later locomotives are geared. The heavy 
trains are handled b}^ two locomotives coupled together, controlled 
from the front locomotive. Only one man is required to handle the 
locomotive. The system of operation is to keep the locomotives avail- 
able for service in the yards at the western end of the line. When a 
train approaches the electrified section a signal is sent from the des- 
patcher's office by means of an electric bell, when the locomotive pro- 
ceeds to the end of the electrified section and couples to the train as 
soon as it appears. When the train is pushed through to the end of the 
electrified system, the locomotive comes back light to its station in the 
yards. The locomotives have been somewhat expensively maintained 
in the past, but careful management is now bringing these costs down 
and it is to be expected that the next year will show a largely reduced 
cost. Even under the best circumstances, the electric locomotives 
and the power-houses are subjected to very severe usage. Only one train 
is on the line at a time and the trains are of extremely variable weights. 
The power-house is alternately running light and overloaded and the 
electric locomotives are subjected to severe corrosive action from the 
gases which rise from the steam locomotives at the heads of the trains 
pushed through the timnels. The locomotives, besides, are worked on 
what is practically switching service on a grade. 

NORTH SHORE RAILWAY 

This was formerly the North Pacific Coast railroad, a narrow gauge 
steam line running north from Sausalito on the promontory north of 
and just across the harbor from San Francisco. A frequent ferry ser- 
vice is maintained from San Francisco to Sausalito and there is con- 
siderable traffic to Sausalito and neighboring towns of an excursion 
and commuter type, besides a fair amount of tourist traffic to Mt. Tamal- 
pais, to the top of which there is a mountain road connecting with the 
North Shore. The road at the time of the electrification operated a line 



162 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

from Sausalito to Cazadero, 87 miles, with branches to Mill Valley and 
San Rafael. 

The road went into new hands about 1902. Cheap water power was 
available and coal was high, so the new management decided to elec- 
trify the lower end in order to take care of the suburban and holiday 
traffic economically. At the same time an outside rail was put down 
along the track to be electrified in order to provide a broad-gauge track 
for electric trains and to keep the narrow-gauge track for their through 
steam trains. In addition, the upper end of the road was extended. 
13.69 route miles of double track was electrified at the lower end, a 
third-rail direct-current installation being provided. 

Current is purchased from the Bay Counties Power Company. The 
power is generated by water turbines and is transmitted 180 miles over a 
50,000-volt transmission line. The voltage is dropped at a distributing 
station to 4,500 volts at which voltage it is distributed to the sub-stations 
along the railroad. An auxiliary steam plant is provided to supply 
current in case of trouble with the transmission line and this power- 
plant has a reserve capacity in order to allow of current being supplied 
to other local consumers. The third rail within the towns is carried on 
reconstructed granite insulators carried on the ends of long cross- ties; 
the entire right of way within towns being fenced to prevent the entrance 
upon the right of way of unauthorized persons, who might come into con- 
tact with this rail and be injured. In the country sections, the third 
rail is entirely exposed and a very cheap installation is secured by carry- 
ing the rail upon insulating wooden blocks sawed from the ends of cross 
ties. No extra-long ties are used in the country sections, but the third 
rails for both tracks are placed between the tracks on the wooden blocks, 
the blocks being long enough to span between the ends of neighboring 
cross-ties on the two tracks and being spiked down to these ties. On 
single-track sections a block of wood is embedded in the ground opposite 
the end of the tie and the insulating block spiked at the ends to this 
block and to the end of the tie. An aluminum rod carried in a trough 
surrounded by pitch, follows the track as a feeder. 

Four and five car trains are used, each train carrying two motors. 
This property is now controlled by the Santa Fe. 

SOUTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY 

The Southern Pacific main line from the East to San Francisco, 
terminates at Oakland, passengers being carried into San Francisco by 
ferry, — much the same arrangement as exists in New York with all of 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 163 

the railroads except the New York Central and the New Haven. In 
addition to the through terminal, there is a terminal for a large suburban 
traffic on a separate mole in Alameda, to which access is had to San 
Francisco by ferry lines. These suburban lines serve Oakland, Berkeley, 
San Jose and a number of other towns which are of themselves important 
and which are also used as places of residence for a large proportion of 
the people doing business in San Francisco. A distinctly suburban 
service is handled for about a 7-niile radius, stations being 4 miles apart. 
This suburban service is said to handle more passengers than any in the 
country, with the exception of the Illinois Central suburban system 
out of Chicago. The Southern Pacific at one time enjoyed a monopoly 
of this traffic, but some of it has been absorbed by the San Francisco, 
Oakland & San Jose railway, popularly known as the Key Route, an 
electric line operating 30 miles of road from a terminal on the Oakland 
side of the harbor (connected by ferry service to San Francisco) to 
Berkeley, Piedmont, and Oakland. The first Key Route trains were 
opened to the public on October 26, 1903, and the road was finished 
in the middle of 1904, a very fast service at 20-minute intervals being 
established between the points on its route by multiple unit trains con- 
taining a- variable number of motor coaches and trailers. It is currently 
reported that the Key Route has offered the Southern Pacific very severe 
competition and is eating into their traffic. In addition to being enabled 
to meet this competition, as coal costs $8 or $9 a ton on the Pacific 
coast and as electrification will largely decrease their consumption, there 
is every reason to believe that a saving will be effected to the Southern 
Pacific by electrical working. 

In 1903, the Southern Pacific retained Mr. A. H. Babcock (who 
carried out the North Shore electrification) to prepare plans and esti- 
mates for the conversion of their local roads in Berkeley, Oakland, and 
Alameda. In December, 1906, plans were adopted for the replacing 
of the steam system with electric traction on all of the lines running out 
from the Alameda mole, the lines covering 14 . 5 miles of track, consist- 
ing of a narrow-gauge line to High Street, the broad gauge line through 
Alameda to Fruitvale and on to Melrose, and the Oakland broad gauge 
line running to Fourteenth and Webster Streets. 

The power-house is being built in Alameda, two 5,000-kilowatt tur- 
bine units being installed. A direct-current 1200- volt trolley system is 
to be installed. The preliminary estimates covered a contemplated 
expenditure of $1,250,000. It was announced that all suburban traffic 
would be diverted from the Oakland to the Alameda mole and the 



164 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

present steam lines running to Oakland and Berkeley would be elec- 
trified. It was later given out that one of the two existing parallel 
steam lines running between Oakland and San Jose would also be 
electrified, this work being carried on in connection with the building of 
a cut-off across the southern end of the Bay for steam service to avoid 
ferrying freight trains. 

The contracts for the equipment have been let and the construction 
of the power-station begun. Contracts let are annoimced as aggregating 
$1,881,600 expenditure, and the total work is now estimated to cost 
$2,500,000, — the original program calling for a $1,250,000 expenditure 
having been augmented. It is probable that the system will be in 
operation within the next year. 

In addition to this suburban electrification, various announcements 
have appeared in the press from time to time to the effect that the 
Southern Pacific is contemplating the electrification of its Sierra Nevada 
division, the daily coast papers in the fall of 1907 announcing that the 
line would be electrically equipped, as a saving of 13% in the operation 
would result. Vice-President Kruttschnitt has announced through the 
press that the railroad is investigating the possibilities of such an elec- 
trification and that Messrs. Sprague and Babcock have been placed on 
a commission to study the same. The electrification contemplated is 
that of the Sacramento division between Rockland and Sparks. This 
is a single-track mountain division, over which the entire Southern 
Pacific traffic to the coast passes. In 83 miles there is a 7,000-foot rise 
in elevation. The line is full of very sharp curves, is built on the sides 
of mountains with heavy grades and cuts, and along it there are 31 miles 
of tunnel and snowsheds. It is subjected to a very heavy but irregular 
traffic and acts as a throttle upon the whole system. There are three 
possible ways of overcoming the difficulties, — namely, to tunnel the 
mountains low down, to add an additional track, or to electrify. Either 
of the first two would be extremely expensive and it is believed that 
electrification would permit them to work the existent track to a greater 
intensity. What decision, if any, has been reached, has not yet been 
announced. 

MICHIGAN CENTRAL RAILROAD 

This is a tunnel electrification installed for the purpose of operating 
trains through a tunnel where the gases from locomotives would be 
obnoxious and positively dangerous. The main line of the Michigan 
Central crosses the Detroit River into Canada, at Detroit. At present 
their entire freight and passenger traffic must be ferried across this 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 165 

river, an operation which causes a loss of time and is expensive. The 
Michigan Central is at present driving a tunnel underneath the Detroit 
River, connecting Detroit and Windsor, Ontario, through which their 
entire traffic will be handled. The tunnel contains two tracks in sep- 
arate iron tubes 65 feet below the river surface. The contemplated 
electrified-tunnel zone will be 3.6 miles long, and will comprise, with 
the yards on either side, 15 miles of electrified single track. Power 
will be purchased from the Detroit Edison Company; a 60-cycle 4,400- 
volt current will be delivered at the sub-station, where two 1,000-kilo- 
watt motor generator sets will convert the current to 650-volt direct 
current. 

A third-rail construction will be adopted. It is said that this rail 
will be carried overhead in the tunnel. 

Six 100-ton direct-current locomotives are on order for this tunnel, 
each locomotive being equipped with two 300-horse-power commutating- 
pole geared motors to each truck, or 1,200-horse-power to a locomotive. 
Each locomotive will be capable of hauling a 900-ton train up a 2% 
grade at 12 miles per hour. The heavier trains will be double-headed, 
the locomotives being equipped with multiple control. 

An electric lighting and pumping plant is to be installed. Alter- 
nating current is to be used on the lighting circuits. Two circuits are 
used in each tmmel so that only one-half the lights will go out in case 
of a break in a circuit. Water from the tunnel will be pumped by 
five motor-driven centrifugal pumps each driven by an induction motor 
operating on 4,400 volts. A storage battery of a capacity sufficient to 
operate the station for one-half hour is to be installed. In case the 
current supply is interfered with and it is necessary to carry the load 
on the battery, the lighting and pumping circuits will be supplied from 
a 50-kilowatt motor generator set driven from the battery. 

GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY 

This is an electrification applied to the tunnel underneath the St. 
Clair River, between Port Huron, Michigan, and Sarnia, on the Canadian 
side, — through which the entire main-line traffic of the Grand Trunk 
railroad passes. Formerly, trains were hauled through the tmmel by 
five steam locomotives specially designed, these locomotives hauling 800 
to 1,600 cars through the tunnel daily. A great deal of trouble was 
experienced in the operation of the tunnel, the steam trains frequently 
stalling. The heavier trains had to be cut in half to put them through 
the tunnel and several accidents in the tunnel occurred, in one of which 



166 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 

a number of lives were lost from asphyxiation. In 1905, the electrifi- 
cation of the tunnel was decided upon and' it is now in complete 
operation. 

The electrification extends over 19,348 linear feet, of which the 
tunnel proper forms 6,032 feet. The tunnel is single- tracked. The 
maximum grade is 2%. A small yard is provided at each end for the 
storage of trains awaiting passage through the timnel. 

A single-phase system is installed, the conductors being carried on 
bridge work overhead. Bridges are 260 feet apart. The power-house 
contains two 1,250-kilowatt turbo-generators. Line voltage is 3,000. 

Six electric locomotives were pro\TLded, each capable of exerting a 
di'aw-bar puU of 25,000 pounds on a 2% grade, and of hauling heavy 
trains at the rate of 10 miles per hour. The locomotives are equipped 
with double end multiple control and each locomotive carries three 250- 
horse-power single-phase motors. The hea^dest trains are now hauled 
through the tunnel without being broken into sections, although such 
trains require double heading with locomotives. The capacity of the 
tunnel is estimated to be raised from twelve 1000-ton trains per day to 
thirty-five 1000-ton trains per day. The locomotives carry a single 
operator and, in addition to rehe^dng congestion, a sa\dng in operation 
is effected. Twenty-five tons of cheap run of mine coal are consumed 
daily under electrical working, against thirty-five tons of anthracite 
under steam-locomotive working costing $5.75 free on board Buffalo. 

GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY 

The Cascade Tunnel on the Great Northern, one of the highest points 
on the road, is a single-track tunnel and acts as a throttle upon the en- 
tire system, the traffic over the road being limited by the traffic which 
can be put through this timnel. It has obviously become a matter of 
good pohcy to adopt any system which might admit of a greater move- 
ment through the tunnel than under steam operation. The tunnel 
measures 14,400 feet from portal to portal and has a uniform grade of 
between 1.6 and 1.7%, the eastern end being 240 feet higher than the 
western. The interior of the tunnel has become so coated with soot 
that it drops upon the rails and makes them so greasy that the tractive 
effort of the locomotives is reduced within the tunnel beyond the reduc- 
tion due to the grade. A three-phase system is being installed. 

The generating station is a tydraulic one located on the Wenatchee 
River 30 miles away, power being brought to the tmmel by a 33,000- 
volt transmission line. Two overhead working conductors carr^dng two 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 167 

legs of the 6,600-volt, three-phase current, — the track return forniuig 
the third leg. Only the tunnel is to be electrified at first, but the press 
announces that if it is successful the whole 60-mile section on each side 
of the tunnel will be electrified. This section ascends 30 miles to the 
tunnel on one side and descends 30 miles on the other. 

Four 100-ton three-phase locomotives have been ordered for use on 
this section. Each locomotive is equipped with four three-phase 325- 
horse-power motors and is capable of hauling a 500-ton train up a 2% 
grade at 15 miles per hour. The motors are geared to the axles. The 
motors will work at constant speed while going over the line and, while 
descending grades, will feed current back into the line. 

BOSTON & MAINE RAILROAD 

In 1902, the Boston & Mame electrically equipped their branch 
between Concord and Manchester. This is a single-track line 16.27 
miles long and was equipped with standard direct-current trolley-line 
construction. Single cars to three-car electric trains are run on the 
branch. 

ERIE RAILROAD 

This road has experienced very severe competition around Rochester 
from the electric interurban lines. It is said that their local passenger 
traffic fell off under this competition to about 10% of its ordinary volume. 
The passenger traffic over the line has largely been of an interurban 
character, although some portion of the traffic is through passenger 
traffic. In order to regain their traffic, in the summer of 1906, contracts 
were made for the electrification of 34 miles of single track, ui addition 
to sidings. This comprises the main line from Rochester to Avon, 19 
miles, and 15 miles of branch line thence to Mt. Morris. Sidings are 
located every three or four miles. 

Power is purchased from the Ontario Power Company which gener- 
ates its power with water wheels at Niagara Falls and delivers the cur- 
rent to the Erie railroad sub-station over a 60,000-volt transmission 
line. A single-phase system is adopted, there being only one sub-station, 
or ^'transforming station" properly called (located at Avon) where the 
60,000-volt current is dropped to 11,000 volts by three 750-kilowatt 
static transformers and delivered to the line at this voltage. The 
working conductor is suspended from a y'^^-inch steel catenary messenger, 
carried over insulators on the ends of steel brackets extending from 
wooden poles. The working conductor is 22 feet above the track and 
is of No. 000 grooved copper. The messenger is of 7-strand, y'^^-inch 



168 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 

galvanized steel wire, ^vith a tensile strength of 22,500 pounds. The 
hangers are ^-iach rods 10 feet apart. Pole spacing is 150 feet. 
EA^er}^ bracket is gi'ounded to the rails so that id case an iasulator fails, 
an inmiediate short circuit results. Steady strain iasulators are placed 
at the bottoms of the brackets. At places where sidings occur, a span 
construction is adopted. There are yards at Rochester and Avon, 
where three or foui' parallel tracks occur, that are electrified. 

An ingenious line construction is adopted for these yards. Steel 
poles are set up at the outside of the tracks and a messenger cable sus- 
pended between, from which messenger is suspended by hangers a 
straight piece of T-iron spanning the tracks and attached to the poles 
at the ends. This T-iron carries iasulators over which pass messengers 
from which the working conductors over the tracks depend. Section- 
insulators are installed at intervals. 

Each motor car is equipped T\ith foiir 100-horse-power single-phase 
motors and is designed to mauitain a 24-mile-per-hour schedule with one 
stop a mile. Through passenger trahis and freight trauis are still han- 
dled by steam. For the electrically-operated local service, six roimd 
trips per day between Rochester and Mt. Morris and nine roimd trips 
per day between Avon and Mt. Morris have been substituted in heu 
of a serAice of three traias per day under steam operation. The fii'st 
regular trip OA'er the line was made on January 27,, 1907, and the line 
was opened for traffic shortly thereafter. 

The Erie is rimiored to be contemplatuig the eventual electrification 
of its subui'ban serAice out of its Jersey City terminal. In 1906, a com- 
mission was appointed to study this electrification, those appointed on 
the commission being Messrs. Graham, Ai^nold, Stillwell, TMlhams, 
and ^Morrison. 

DELAWARE & HI'DSOX RAILROAD 

In 1907, the Delaware & Hudson electrified a section of its road 
between Ballston and Saratoga, New York, for use by the Schenectady 
Railway Company, m order to supply a link in their route from Sche- 
nectady to New York. This was formally opened on July 3, 1907. 

The railroad bed and track construction for this line are new, a 
double track being laid at the edge of and upon the Delaware & Hudson's 
right of way between Ballston and Saratoga. A direct-current OA^er- 
head-trohey center-pole bracket suigle-messenger three-poiat sus- 
pension-catenary construction was adopted. Poles are spaced 100 feet 
apart. The messenger is 5^-iach galA'anized steel A No. 0000 trolley 
is used. A 500,000-cu\ mil. stranded-copper feeder is uistalled and a 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 169 

return feeder of the same size is installed, connected with the tracks 
at every tenth pole. Standard 40-ton interurban cars are used, each 
equipped with four 125-horse-power motors with double-end control. 
These are capable of making 50 miles per hour on level track. 

WASHINGTON, BALTIMORE & ANNAPOLIS RAILWAY 

A portion of this road was formerly a steam road affording con- 
nection between Annapolis Junction and Odenton on the Baltimore & 
Ohio's and the Pennsylvania's main lines between Baltimore and Wash- 
ington and the city of Annapolis, Maryland. The Company, starting 
with an electric road from Washington to Laurel, Maryland, as a nucleus, 
determined upon building a high-speed electric road between Baltimore 
and Washington with a branch to Annapolis. After various ups and 
downs, during which the road changed hands several times, it was 
finally completed, a new road-bed being built between Washington and 
Baltimore and the Annapolis, Washington & Baltimore steam line 
acquired and electrified to afford their connection to Annapolis. 

There is a heavy interurban traffic between Baltimore and Wash- 
ington, which was formerly taken care of by an excellent steam service 
on the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsylvania railroads. The two 
roads afforded hourly service between the two cities. The electric 
road competes with 123 steam trains daily, and to attract traffic it has 
been necessary to put on a high-grade service and to make the distance 
between Washington and Baltimore in one hour. The road compre- 
hends an equivalent single-track mileage of 96 . 33 miles of which 20 . 5 
is the old steam line. 

A single-phase system is installed. The power is purchased from 
the Potomac Electric Company of Washington and delivered over a 
33,000-volt, three-phase transmission line to a transforming and dis- 
tributing station at Annapolis Junction. The power is said to cost 
them about 2 cents per kilowatt hour, or 7 cents per car mile. A single- 
messenger catenary-suspension pole-bracket construction is employed 
for the alternating current sections. Poles are 150 feet apart. The 
messenger is %-inch steel wire, the trolley No. 0000 copper. Hangers 
are 16 feet, 8 inches apart. The working conductor is carried 19 feet, 
6 inches above the rails on the main line and 21 feet on the Annapolis 
branch, this latter height being adopted on account of the passage of 
freight trains over the line. The cars operate on direct current within 
the city limits of Baltimore and inside Annapolis and Washington. 
In the latter two places, local regulations prohibit the using of the 
track rail as a return, and an overhead return is provided. 



170 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

The motor cars are each equipped with four 125-horse-power single- 
phase motors. The trains at present are run hourly between Annapolis 
and Baltimore and between Baltimore and Washington. Two trains 
an hour over each line will shortly be run. Baggage and mail are carried 
on the electric cars. We were informed that the company possesses 
an electric locomotive and hauls freight cars by electricity, but we noted 
that the freight yard at Annapolis is not electrified and that freight is 
evidently handled by steam, whatever may be contemplated for the 
future. Since the road was opened, it has carried a considerable 
traffic, which is said to be constantly increasing. 

BALTIMORE & ANNAPOLIS SHORT LINE 

This is a line of road running between Annapolis and Baltimore 
over a single track 253^ miles long, in addition to which there is a branch 
4 miles long from Annapolis to a seaside resort frequented by Baltimore 
excursionists, known as Bay Ridge. We are told that, upon the elec- 
trification of the Annapolis, Washington & Baltimore through ac- 
quirement by the Baltimore, Washington & Annapolis, the latter 
road took all the passenger traffic between Baltimore and Annapolis. 
The Short Line consolidated with the Maryland Electric Railways Com- 
pany about two years ago and electrified, it is said, in order to hold its 
share of the traffic. Under steam operation the road ran 7 three-coach 
trains a day each way. The fastest time between Baltimore and Anna- 
polis w^as made in 45 minutes by a train making five stops, or a mean 
speed of 33.7 miles per hour. The running time of the locals was 
one hour, with 15 stops. Under electrical working the trains will be 
run on an hourly headway, the express trains making the run in 45 
minutes and the locals in 55 minutes. 

The company buys power from the Consolidated Gas, Electric 
Light and Power Company of Baltimore, which delivers current through a 
transmission line carrying current at 22,000 volts. The current is trans- 
formed and distributed from one station, no sub-stations being provided, 
6,600-volt single-phase current being supplied to the line. A single-pole 
bracket single-messenger catenary-suspension construction is used, sim- 
ilar to that used on the Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis. Poles 
are placed 120 feet apart. The working conductor is No. 000 and is 
located 22 feet above the rails. A steel wire for lightning protection 
is. carried along the top of the poles and is connected to the track at 
intervals and also grounded to buried plates. 

Trains weighing 50 tons, each equipped with four 100-horse-power 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 171 

motors are used on the line. The current is collected by a shoe carried 
on a diamond pantagraph, instead of by means of a trolley as on the 
Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis. 

INTERNATIONAL RAILWAY COMPANY 

As a part of their system covering the territory aroimd Buffalo and 
Niagara Falls, the International Railway Company operates a line about 
16 miles long connecting Buffalo and Lockport. A portion of the line 
is a former steam track leased from the Erie Railroad and electrified by 
the predecessors of the International Railway Company. 

The line is equipped with standard direct-current trolley construction 
and in addition to handling the interurban traffic, carries all of the 
freight consigned to Lockport from the steam-road terminals in Buffalo. 
The freight is hauled in standard freight cars as delivered by the steam 
railroads. Electric locomotives are used for hauling this freight, the 
locomotives being able to haul 15 to 20 loaded freight cars. Daily 
freight traffic amounts to about 40 carloads, and may reach 60 at times. 

Power is purchased from the power companies at Niagara Falls. 
A reserve steam plant was built at Niagara when the road was originally 
equipped. 

As they have no data over the road for steam haulage, the officials 
of this company were unable to inform us as to the comparative cost of 
handling this freight traffic by steam and by electricity. The mainte- 
nance of electric locomotives on this line has been extremely low. We 
have quoted their record in a preceding section of this report. 

NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILROAD 

The Northern Pacific has a branch between Everett and Snohomish, 
Washington, 9 miles long, over which two trains each way per day were 
run, the traffic being light and not warranting more trains being put on. 
The expense of operating the passenger service is said to have used up 
the entire passenger earnings, and the passenger service was conducted 
merely as a convenience to the public. 

The local street-railway system in Everett was desirous of extending 
its lines to surrounding towns, and particularly to build a connection 
between Everett and Snohomish. The topography is rough, and to have 
constructed a line would have been very expensive. Accordingly a 
lease was made of the Northern Pacific branch and the line electrified 
to supply the interurban section, an hourly service being put on. The 



172 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 

freight traffic was retained by the Northern Pacific and operated with 
steam locomotives. 

In the prefiminary figures, it was calculated that S2,200 per annum 
per mile would be taken in from passengers, in spite of a reduction in 
fares from 3 cents to 13^ cents per mile. According to the press, these 
expectations have been largely exceeded. 

CHICAGO, BrRLIXGTOX & Q^I^XY RAILROAD 

This road operates an electricaUy-equipped branch line between 
Deadwood and Lead, South Dakota. It is an overhead-trolley line 
equipped with three motor cars and two trailers. 

COLORADO SPRINGS & CRIPPLE CREEK RAILROAD 

This steam road operates certain electrified di^dsions through Cripple 
Creek, Anaconda, Elkton, Goldfield, Independence, and Victor, Colorado, 
and steam cars to other places. The road comprehends 57 nfiles of 
steam track and 17 miles of electrified track. 

CINCIXXATl, HA^kllLTOX & DAYTOX RAILWAY 

The branch line between Findley and Delphos, Ohio, about 20 miles 
in length, which used to be important, but which through acquh'ement 
of other trackage has been left off the main Line and become only a local 
line, has been electrified by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton. 

FOXDA, JOHXSTOWX & GLOVERSVILLE R.ULWAY 

This is an interm^ban electric railawy connecting Gloversville, Fonda, 
Schenectady, Johnstown, and Amsterdam. In the formation of the 
company, an electric road and a steam road were acquired and the elec- 
trically-worked track extended. A portion of the steam track has been 
electrified to form a link in their electrical section, although steam trains 
are stih operated over it, the road being chartered as a steam road; 33 
miles of steam road are operated and 85 miles of electric. 

LOS AXGELES & REDOXDO R.ULROAD 

In 1890, a narrow gauge steam road paralleling the Santa Fe, was 
built between Los Angeles and Reclondo, California (18 miles). In 1902, 
the road fell into the hands of a new company who saw that its proper 
field would be operation as an interurban electric road. The gauge 
was broadened and the line electrified, standard direct-current construc- 
tion being employed. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 173 

The line owns three shipping wharves at Redondo, the trackage over 
which terminal is electrified. Steam locomotives were formerly used 
there for switching purposes, but have been replaced by small electric 
locomotives. An article in the Street Railway Journal of April 30, 
1904, says, concerning the Los Angeles & Redondo : 

'^ This Company has proven that it can handle car-load freight, how- 
ever, with its electric locomotives, at a less outlay of power-consumption 
than it had previously experienced in steam locomotives, and, aside from 
all this, there is the material advantage of saving in labor-cost, as two 
men can handle the trains in lieu of four, and the services of a high- 
priced locomotive engineer are dispensed with." 

According to 1908 returns, the road operates 84.33 miles of electrified 
track and possesses one steam locomotive and two electric locomotives 
for handling freight. 

EVANSVILLE SUBURBAN & NEWBURGH RAILWAY 

This was an unimportant steam road out of Evansville, Indiana, 
operated by steam locomotives for 15 years. In 1904, it was equipped 
with overhead trolley and the necessary rolling-stock bought for 
passenger service. In 1905 the line was extended. It comprises at 
present, 25 miles of road and 3 miles of siding. Freight is still handled 
by steam. 

NATIONAL CITY & OTAY RAILWAY 

This is a former steam suburban line extending from San Diego and 
National City to Chulavista, about ten miles, — which track has been 
electrified. The controlling company also operates the Coronado rail- 
road, a minor steam line 22 miles long. 

SAN DIEGO, PACIFIC BEACH & LAJOLLA RAILROAD 

This narrow-gauge line between San Diego and Lajolla is being con- 
verted into an electric trolley line. 

VISALIA & LEMON GROVE RAILWAY 

This is a subsidiary line to the Southern Pacific in California, which 
comprises 23 miles of track, of which 10 miles were formerly operated 
by steam. A single-phase system has been adopted for the road. It is 
particularly interesting in that 15-cycle equipment is used. 

CINCINNATI, GEORGETOWN & PORTSMOUTH RAILROAD 

This was formerly a narrow-gauge steam line extending from Cin- 
cinnati to Georgetown, Ohio, 47 miles. It was acquired by the Apple- 



174 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

yard Syndicate which operated a number of roads connecting Cincinnati, 
Toledo, Columbus, Ohio, and Wheeling, West Virginia, and was electri- 
fied to form a link in their system. At the time of electrification, it was 
changed to standard gauge and extended. Under steam, the operation 
of the road was expensive, and, at the time of its taking over by the 
* Appleyard Syndicate, the depreciation of equipment caused the operat- 
ing expenses to form an unusually large part of the gross expenses. 
After electrification, in place of the two passenger trains per day run 
under steam service, an hourly service each way was put on and the pas- 
senger rates reduced one- third. The following figures were given out, 
concerning the operation of the 47 miles of road from Cincinnati to 
Georgetown : 



Month 


Gross Earnings 


Operating Expenses 


Net 


December 1900. . . 


$ 6,669.00 


$5,633.00 


$1,036.00 


December 1901. . . 


. • 8,818.00 


5,686.00 


3,133.00 


December 1902. . . 


10,000.00 


5,900.00 


4,100.00 



During December 1900, it was operated as a narrow-gauge steam 
road; during December 1901, the same, but under new and progressive 
management. December 1902 was the first month of electrical opera- 
tion. The receipts for the year ending July 31, 1903, were $130,000 
against $105,000 for the preceding year under exclusive steam operation. 
Freight was at first handled entirely by steam, but since two 50-ton 
300-horse-power electric locomotives have been acquired, the freight 
is handled partly by them. 

DAYTON, LEBANON & CINCINNATI RAILROAD 

This road was a former steam road operating from Dayton to Leba- 
non, Ohio, with a single-track mileage of 26 miles. It was converted 
to an electric trolley road in 1904. 

OHIO RIVER & WESTERN RAILWAY 

This narrow-gauge steam line operating between Zanesville and 
Wheeling was converted to an interurban trolley road in 1904. 

OHIO RIVER & COLUMBUS RAILWAY 

This small and imimportant steam line was converted into an inter- 
urban trolley line in 1904. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 175 

YOUNGSTOWN & OHIO RAILWAY 

This company,, building an interurban electric road, secured a 99-year 
lease on 6 miles of the Pittsburgh, Lisbon & Western trackage, formerly 
operated by steam, and electrified it in order to get into Salem, Ohio. 

CINCINNATI & NORTHWESTERN RAILWAY 

This was a very small steam road operating from College Hill Junc- 
tion to Mt. Healthy. It was acquired by the Cincinnati, Dayton & 
Toledo, an interurban road, and electrified by the latter in order to 
afford a connection into Cincinnati. 

PEORIA & PEKIN TRACTION & TERMINAL CO 

This was a combined electrically and steam operated road owning 
and operating 15 miles of trackage. It was acquired by the Chicago 
& Alton in 1905. 

CHICAGO & GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY 

In October, 1903, the Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern railway 
leased a 22-mile branch of the Chicago & Great Western railway, 
between Sumner and Waverly, Iowa, and in 1905, the Waterloo, Cedar 
Falls & Northern railway was acquired by the Chicago & Great 
Western. Under it are operated 89 miles of electrically and steam oper- 
ated trackage. The equipment of the road comprises 85 electric and 
steam passenger cars and 2 electric and 3 steam locomotives. 

KEESEVILLE, AUSABLE CHASM & LAKE CHAMPLAIN RAILWAY 

This is a small line extending from Port Kent in Essex Coimty, New 
York, to Keeseville, — connecting with the Delaware & Hudson. It was 
built to supply freight facilities to pulp-paper and horseshoe-nail mills 
along the Ausable River and was formerly operated by steam. Owing 
to its rendering the Ausable Chasm accessible to tourists, the passenger 
traffic became a very large factor with it, and it became evident that its 
operation could be most profitably conducted as an electric-railway 
proposition. In addition, cheap water power was available. In 1905, 
it was changed from a steam to an electric road operating 6 miles of 
track, and is equipped with one electric and one steam locomotive and 
five cars. It is a third-rail direct-current type. 



176 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

HOCKING VALLEY RAILROAD 

This railroad operates an electrical service between Dundas and 
Jackson, Ohio, as the Wellston & Jackson belt railway (leased for 99 
years) in addition to its through steam service over the line into Jackson. 

SALT LAKE & OGDEN RAILROAD 

This was formerly operated as a steam road, but, in 1904, was pur- 
chased by new interests and money was raised to convert it into an 
electric road and provide for its extension from Farmington to Ogden, 
Utah. Thirty-eight miles of former steam road are now in process of 
conversion, 

NEWTON & NORTHWESTERN RAILWAY 

The Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern railway, an interurban 
railroad company, in 1906, purchased the Newton & Northwestern rail- 
way (this being a steam road running northwest from Newton, Iowa, 
through Boone to Rockwell City, Iowa, a distance of 42 miles), and elec- 
trified a portion of it, adding about 25 miles of new line on each end to 
Fort Dodge and Des Moines respectively. A branch line 5 miles in 
length was built from Kelly to Ames. 

The electrified section was equipped with ordinary direct-current 
trolley construction. According to 1908 returns, the steam line is now 
102 miles in length, of which- 37 miles between Kelly and Lanyon have 
been electrified. The road owns and operates at present, 85 miles of 
electric track. A joint steam and electric service is maintained, freight 
being handled by steam. 

CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE & ST. PAUL RAILWAY 

This road electrified a portion of its Evanston branch running north 
from Wilson Avenue, Chicago, to afford an extension to the North- 
western Elevated railroad, which now runs its trains north over this 
track, under a trackage agreement. 

COLORADO & SOUTHERN RAILWAY 

The Denver & Interurban, which is a part of the Colorado & 
Southern system, has been electrified with the single-phase system. 
The electrified line extends from the outskirts of the Denver City limits 
to a junction point known as Louisville Junction, thence two branches 
pass to Boulder, forming an almost circular loop. In addition, there is 
a spur from El Dorado Springs to the nearest point on the Marshall 
branch. In all, forty-four miles of track are electrified. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 177 

Outside the terminal cities, the single-phase system is used, a single- 
messenger catenary construction being employed. Most of the line 
is bracket construction, but a part is cross-span. The brackets are 
attached to the poles by collars, instead of being bolted, and a new 
type of steady-strain insulator, which, will drop off clear of the trolley 
wire in case an insulator breaks, is used on curves. Catenary wire 
cross-spans are used instead of bridge work, where span construction is 
resorted to. The messenger is -j^-inch galvanized steel wire. The trol- 
ley wire is No. 0000 phono-electric, and is carried 22 feet above the rails. 
Poles are spaced 120 feet apart on tangents. There are two 1,000- 
kilowatt turbo-alternators in the power-station, delivering single-phase 
current. 

Within the city limits of Denver, the cars operate over the tracks of 
the Denver Tramways Company, operating on direct current, — and 1.5 
miles of direct-current line have been provided through the city of 
Boulder for operation there. 

GENERAL 

It will be seen that the electrifications in the United States extend 
over a great variety. The smaller electrifications are of no consequence 
to the terminal problem presented in Chicago, but are simply presented 
to show the elasticity of electric equipment ,which can handle the very 
heavy terminal service of the New York Central, on the one hand, and the 
light services indicated in the minor electrifications, on the other. In 
addition to these electrifications, the numerous and generally profitable 
conversions of numerous dummy lines throughout the country, should 
be borne in mind as well as the electrification of the elevated-railroad 
systems in various cities of the United States, — which electrifications 
have, without exception, afforded a large saving in operation to the 
companies concerned. 

The elevated-railroad electrifications are of particular importance 
because they handle a traffic similar to that handled by the more busily 
employed suburban services afforded by the steam roads, and the elec- 
trification of the suburban services would be along similar lines to the 
electrification of the elevated railroads. At the time the work was con- 
summated, the electrification of the elevated railroads was a much larger 
problem than would be the electrification of the steam-railroad terminals 
in Chicago at present. At that time, the apparatus and devices which 
they were called upon to use were new and in many cases imtried. 
What the maintenance on this apparatus would be, could not very well 



178 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

be predicted, and the power-requirements were much larger than in any 
work hitherto attempted. 

Electric traction for the steam roads, in the present instance, has 
passed out of the experimental stage. Such experiments as are in pro- 
gress are to determine the choice of the best system or to prove certain 
economic contentions regarding electrical equipment. The physical 
possibilities of electrification cannot be questioned. The varying con- 
ditions under which it has been applied in existing electrifications cover 
about all the phases of the Chicago situation, with the exception of 
freight-handling, and in this direction there is merely an extension, and 
not an excursion in an entirely new direction. While the entire problem 
offered by the electrification of each terminal in Chicago is a large one, 
it is a large one merely because it amasses a number of smaller ones which 
have already been paralleled. It is interesting to recall that the power- 
stations of the elevated railroads in Chicago are each of rather more 
than sufficient capacity to take care of an entire terminal power-demand 
under electrification. 

Should one power house be provided for the working of all the ter- 
minals of all the railroads in Chicago under electricity, it would mean a 
power-house of a size of which there are no fewer than six in the Island 
of Manhattan alone, — to say nothing of the other large power-houses in 
Greater New York. 

As to finances, the Pennsylvania railroad is spending more money to 
provide a terminal in New York City, than would be required for the 
equipment for electrical working of all the railroads within the city 
limits of Chicago. 

BRITISH ISLES 
LONDON 

In London there has existed for a long time a sort of belt line within 
the center of the city for carrying local passenger traffic. It is popu- 
larly known as the '^ Inner Circle." This is carried in shallow-level 
subways and the trains thereon were formerly operated by steam. The 
deep-level subways are tube roads and have always been operated by 
electricity. The Inner Circle is the joint property of the Metropolitan 
Railways and the Metropolitan District Railways, with a joint mileage 
of 128 miles. The smoke was obnoxious and traffic became congested. 
Several commissions were called to pass upon the situation and a recom- 
mendation was made for the electrification of the Inner Circle. The 
electrification was accordingly carried out about 1903. This belt also 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 179 

handles certain passenger suburban trains delivered to it by the steam 
railroads entering London. 

GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY ' 

This railroad owns a branch known as the Hammersmith & City 
railway branch which formerly delivered its steam trains to the Metro- 
politan railway, which hauled them by electricity over the Inner Circle. 
Because of its intimate connection with the Inner Circle, the Great 
Western railway decided upon the electrification of this steam branch. 
Its equipment was made to correspond with the equipment adopted upon 
the Inner Circle, — six-car multiple-unit trains being run upon 600-volt 
direct current collected from a 103-pound third rail, with an insulated 
return installed in the middle of the track. The trains accelerate at the 
rate of 1.6 miles per hour per second and consimie 75 watt-hours per ton 
mile. 

The electrification covers about 4 miles of double-track road together 
with t6rminals. It was put into operation in 1907. 

LONDON & SOUTHWESTERN RAILWAY 

This road has in operation an electrified tube line from Waterloo 
Station to a station near the Bank of England in order to get its passen- 
gers to a terminal in the heart of London. 

LONDON & NORTHWESTERN RAILWAY 

This is a standard steam trunk line operating suburban trains which 
are run through the underground tunnels of the Metropolitan district 
railway. The suburbans start from Broad Street in London and rim 
on an open railway around the North of London to Willesden Junction, 
where they cross the main line of the London & Northwestern and run 
to Earl's Court. At Earl's Court Station, the underground attaches 
electric locomotives to the trains and hauls them the remaining portion 
of their journey through the tube, to Mansion House Station. 

The through passenger service of the London & Northwestern is 
considered the banner service of the old world. 

The management of the London & Northwestern is desirous of 
further development of its suburban traffic, but to do so would interfere 
with the through traffic which is already badly congested. Accordingly, 
they have adopted a plan of building an entirely new electric railway 
from the present terminus at Euston, to Watford, a distance of 17 miles 
in order to handle the suburban traffic and to give over the entire present 



180 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 

trackage into the terminal to the through traffic. This subui'ban line 
will start beneath the present Euston terminus and will run below the 
existing main track in a subway imtil open country is reached at Kilburn, 
when the line for the remaining distance will be constructed partly by 
widening the existent right of way and partly by the construction of a 
new route. Parhamentar}' sanction for this work has been asked and 
the details announced to the pubhc by Lord Stalbriclge, at a semi-annual 
meeting of the stockholders, over which he presided in 1906. It is 
reported, at the present time, that the carrying out of this work is 
temporarily held up, ovrmg: to difficulty in borrowing the capital 
necessary to carry it out. 

LONDON, BRIGHTON & SOUTH COAST RAILWAY 

This railway, which does an important suburban business in the 
southern part of London in addition to main-line traffic, determined 
upon the electrification of its London line between London Bridge and 
Victoria Station in order to reheve congestion and to afford a more attrac- 
tive service. At the end of 1904 it annoimced its determination to 
electrify four miles between Battersea Park and Peckham Rye, as an 
experiment. This is an inter-connecting link between main lines and 
is not necessary for through traffic. They announced that if their 
experiment should be successful, the line would be extended at both 
ends to London Bridge and Victoria Station. This extension was sub- 
sequently carried out and the equipment of their line over 12 miles of 
double trackage is just being completed, their expenditure being 
approximately $1,250,000. 

Power is being supphed them from the London Electric Supply Cor- 
poration, with whom they have a 7-year contract. The single-phase 
system has been adopted, a single-messenger catenary suspension sup- 
ported from steel bridges, being employed on the line. The car motors 
are of the Winter-Eichberg repulsion type. Dehvery of the rolling- 
stock is expected in August 1908, and operation under electrical service 
shortly thereafter. 

MERSEY RAILWAY 

This is a double-track railroad operating in a tunnel from Liverpool 
under the Mersey River to the Hamilton Square Station in Birkenhead, 
and thence to other stations in the latter city. It handles a large pas- 
senger traffic between these two towns. It was opened to operation on 
January 20, 1886, a steam service being operated in the tunnel. The 
smoke and soot were extremely objectionable and large ventilating fans 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 181 

were installed to aid in the ventilation of the tunnel. A separate ven- 
tilating tunnel was run alongside the two-track tunnel and a large ven- 
tilating plant was installed. The ventilation of the tunnel was very 
expensive and used up all of the profits which might otherwise have 
come to the road. For a number of years preceding the electrification, 
no dividends were paid upon the stock. 

Electrification of the road was determined upon in 1902, and on 
March 2, 1903, the last steam train was run in the timnel, a complete 
change from steam to electrical working being made in a single day. 

Current is supplied by a third rail at 600 volts. An extra insulated 
rail is furnished for the return current. Multiple-imit trains of various 
length are operated upon the road. Direct-current generators are 
installed for supplying the operatmg ciu^rent, but alternating-current 
generators have also been provided, as the electrification of connecting 
lines is contemplated. In the first week's working under electricity, 
125,272 passengers were carried, an increase of 37,619, or 45%, and an 
increase in the revenues of $1,390. The traffic on the other lines did 
not show a decrease. This we take as showing that increased facilities 
bring increased traffic. 

For the first half-year's electrical working, the road reported an 
increase in receipts of $40,000. The number of passengers during this 
time increased from 2,844,000 to 4,153,000. The train miles run during 
the half-j^ear were 400,000, as compared with 155,000 miles run under 
steam during the half-year ending December 31, 1902. The operating 
expenses per train mile under steam were 82}^ cents, as compared with 
36.4 cents under electricity. Correspondence from London to the 
Street Railway Journal, in 1903, stated: 

''The tide seems to have turned with the Mersey railroad. For 
some years this company has been working at a loss. At a recent half- 
yearly meeting it was stated that the number of passengers during the 
last half-year distinctly increased and the receipts have been steadily 
going upward, while before the electrification the receipts had been 
going steadily downward." 

Dawson is authority for the following costs on this road under steam 
and under electrical working: 

Locomotive cost per train mile, pence 
Train lighting and cleaning per train 

mile, pence 

Repairs and renewals of carriages and 

wagons per train mile in- pence. . 



1901 with 
Steam 

13.653 


1905 with 
Electricity 

6.29 


1.665 


0.580 


1.719 


1.075 



182 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

1901 with 1905 with 
Steam Electricity- 
Train miles run 311,360 829,898 

Total expenditures £64,662 £69,036 

Maintenance of permanent way £6,055 £3,793 

Further comparison in 1906: 

Train miles 829,188 

Total Expenses £70,930 

Increased train mileage 167% 

Increase in total expenditures 10% 

At the semi-annual meeting of the stockholders, held in the fall of 1904, 
W. J. Falconer, chairman of the Board of Directors, stated that the total 
number of passengers carried for the past six-month period exclusive 

of season ticket holders was 4,500,000 

against 3,200,000 

for the corresponding period in 1903, or an increase of 40% 

Total receipts from passengers in the 6 months £33,715 

against £26,136 

for same period 1903, an increase of 29% 

The number of passengers using season tickets increased, the 

receipts from this source being against £4,167 

against £3,485 

or an increase of 20% 

From all sources, the receipts for the 6 months were £40,918 

against £32,278 

in 1903, or an increase of 25% 

The working expenses for the 6 months were £33,591 

against £32,061 

for corresponding 6 months in 1903, an increase of only £1,530 

But these expenses included the exceptional charges for pumping 
and ventilation. If they excluded these in order to afford a 
comparison between actual working expenses, the expenses 

would be for the 6 months £29,751 

against £27,375 

an increase of only £2,376 

The train mileage for the 6 months had been 411,683 

against 218,308 

for the corresponding 6 months in 1903, so that they had been 
running something Hke double train mileage. 

Excluding pumping and ventilation, the cost per train mile in 1903, 
in pence, during 4 months' steam and 2 months' electrical 

working was 30 . 1 

while during the last six months the cost per train mile under 

exclusive electrical working had been in pence 17.35 

equal to a reduction of 40% 

If, however, they included pumping and ventilation charges, the 

cost per train mile for the half year in 1903, was, in pence 35 . 25 

while the cost during the corresponding period in 1904 was, 

in pence 19 . 58 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 183 

''These figures conclusively establish the superiority of electrical 
traction over steam traction, in dealing with such a railway as this." 
(Street Railway Journal, Nov. 5, 1904.) 

NORTH EASTERN RAILWAY 

This is one of the major railroads of England. They have a heavy 
suburban traffic tributary to Newcastle, which they decided to handle 
electrically about 1902. The working expenses on their lines were 
steadily going up and their receipts were stationary, — as is the case 
with most of the suburban operation in England. Thus, in London, 
in the 10-year period from 1895 to 1905, the operating costs for certain 
London suburban trains per train mile had risen from 66.5 cents to 
82.5 cents, without any increase in receipts. The construction of cer- 
tain electric roads in the vicinity of Newcastle and the projection of 
others, had proved a menace to the North Eastern suburban service, 
and it became necessary, if they were to hold this travel, to electrify 
such of their lines as might be brought into competition. 

Newcastle is a large, industrial city, with seaside resorts at the 
mouth of the Tyne, about 8 miles distant, and a number of nearby coun- 
try towns which are used for residence and points of excursion by a large 
number of people employed or living in Newcastle. In addition to 
the main line of the North Eastern, the company possesses a network 
of suburban lines connecting these points. 

In addition to the electrification of their strictly passenger lines, 
the electrification of their Quayside branch line was undertaken. This 
line is used entirely for freight traffic. It passes along, or adjacent 
to, the water-front and gives service to a number of industrial plants. 
Its electrification was decided upon because steam operation has pre- 
vented the line being used to its full capacity, — owing to its being 
mostly in tunnels and on a heavy grade. 

In addition to the electrification of existing steam lines, a new line 
connecting Gosforth and Ponteland has been built and electrically 
equipped from the start. 

The electrification extends over 37 miles of single, double, and four- 
track line. Numerous junctions and cross-overs and a large amount of 
special track work are incorporated. The trackage electrically equipped 
initially amounted to 82 miles of equivalent single track. The mean 
distance between stations on the suburban line is about IJ^ miles. 

Power is purchased locally. Third-rail equipment of standard con- 
struction is employed on all main trackage. Freight yards are equipped 



184 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERfflNALS 

^dth an overhead trolley construction, two overhead wires connected 
in parallel being suspended over each track, from which current is col- 
lected by the electrical freight locomotives by a bow collector. 

For the freight ser^dce on the Quayside branch, two electric loco- 
motives are in use. The locomotives are of the geared type, weigh 50 
tons each and are each provided with a four-motor equipment. They 
are capable of handling a 300-ton train (long ton) on a level, at 14 miles an 
hour, or can start a train of 150 tons on a grade of 1 . 27%, running up 
this grade under all conditions of weather at 10 miles an hour. Freight 
ser^dce on lines other than the Quaj^side branch, is handled by steam 
locomotives. Passenger traflSc is handled in multiple-imit trains. The 
motor cars are equipped with motors of 600-horse-power capacity to 
each car. The ordinar}^ train is made up of two motor cars and two 
trailers, each car seating 66 passengers and the entire train weighing 270 
tons. The trains are run on a 15-minute headway with a 20-second 
stop at stations and the running-time has been reduced about 25% below 
that under steam operation. They run at a maximum velocity of 35 
miles per hour, and at an average of about 22 miles per hour. 

The first trains were put on from Newcastle to Benton in 1904. 
The entire electrification was opened to the pubHc on March 29, 1904, 
and the full electrical servdce in July of the same year. In November, 
1904, within 6 months of the inauguration of full electrical working, 
occurred the visit of the Channel Squadron to Newcastle, to which we 
have already referred. This put very severe demands upon the rail- 
road, which were very ably met, by putting every electrical car owned 
by the railroad into operation the second day of the visit. 

The capital required for the conversion of the line was $930,000. 
The chau'man, Viscount Ridey, speaking of the electrification about 
two months after its opening to the pubhc, announced that so far as 
profit and loss w^ere concerned it was too early to speak, but that, taking 
the two weeks ending July 11, 1903, and July 9, 1904, for comparison, 
it was found that the passengers between stations had increased 25% 
and the money receipts 22% and that their newly electrified hnes were 
satisfactory. Dawson has pubhshed the following figures covering the 
operation under the first 6 months with electricity, and that of the 
corresponding preceding 6 months imder steam operation, stating that 
the steam costs are somewhat low as they are the figures for the entire 
line, while terminal costs always run higher than the average costs for 
a road: 



EXISTENT 


INSTALLATIONS 


OF 


ELEC5TRIC TRACTION 






Half-year ending 


Half-year ending 








Dec. 1903 




Dec. 1905 


Per Cent 






Steam 




Electric 


Increase 


Gross earnings . . 




£129,000 




£151,000 


17.1 


Running costs. . 




£42,761 




£47,779 


11.7 


Ratio costs to receipts 


33.2% 




31.8% 


• • • • 


Locomotive 


power 










costs per train mile 


14. 5d. 




6.75d. 


• • • • 


Passengers carried 


2,844,000 




3,548,000 


24.8 



185 



The following figures are for February, 1905: 

Mileage of trains 92,541 

Mileage of cars 254,938 

Average number of cars per train 2 . 75 

Total energy consumed in kilowatt hours 647,140 

Energy consumed per train mile kilowatt hours 6.933 

Energy consumed per car mile in kilowatt hours 2 . 538 

Average cost of power per car mile in pence 1.601 

Engineers' pay per car mile in pence 297 

Conductors' pay in pence 217 

Total cost of traction per car mile in pence 2. 115 

Total cost of traction per train mile 5.7 

Hon. John Lloyd Walton, chairman of the Board of Directors of the 
North Eastern Railway, stated to the stockholders in 1905, that ^^ the 
further experience of electric traction of the Newcastle District has been 
entirely favorable, both practically and financially. In the last half- 
year of steam they had had 2,844,000 bookings, but with electric trac- 
tion for the last half-year of 1905, they had carried 3,548,000 passengers, 
an increase in round-numbers of 25%. The gross earnings for the half- 
year 1903, when operated by steam, were £129,000, and for the cor- 
responding half-year in 1905, when run electrically £151,000." The 
chairman further stated that while the running costs in 1903 for the 
half-year were £42,761, although their mileage had been doubled with 
electrification, the working costs for the corresponding half-year in 
1905 were only £47,779. 

Alexander Wilson, assistant general manager of the North Eastern 
railway, on May 6, 1905, before the International Railway Congress in 
its session at Washington, D. C, stated that ^' the North Eastern rail- 
way had been operating, for the last year, an electric suburban service in 
the Newcastle District, with the object of regaining the traffic from the 
competing tramways and to increase its amoimt. All the traffic has 
not been regained from the tramways, but the amount handled has been 
considerably increased. The reduction in expenses has resulted in a 



186 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

net revenue which more than covers the interest on the extra cost of 
installation necessitated by the introduction of the electric power. The 
current is being furnished at a reasonable price by power stations which 
do not belong to the railroad." (Street Railway Journal, May 13, 
1905.) 

The half-yearly report for 1906, states that further experience in 
electric working of the suburban lines in the Newcastle District has 
been favorable from a practical and from a financial point of view. 

LANCASHIRE & YORKSHIRE RAILWAY 

The Lancashire & Yorkshire system is one of the important rail- 
way systems in England. It has a heavy suburban traffic in the vicinity 
of Liverpool, the traffic under the steam operation extending out to 
Southport about 18)^ miles distant, with occasional trains beyond. The 
line from Liverpool to Southport is almost straight, the stations at the 
Liverpool end are about one mile apart, and on the outer end at a further 
distance apart. A local service was operated as far as Hall Road, 7 
miles towards Southport from Liverpool, and a combined local and 
express service operated beyond. The running-time from Liverpool 
to Southport was 25 minutes for the express trains and 54 minutes for 
the locals, and the running-time from Liverpool to Hall Road was 25 
minutes. Under steam operation there were about 36 trains per day 
between Liverpool and Southport and about an equal number between 
Liverpool and Hall Road. The total train mileage before electrification 
per day was 1,900, this being increased under electrification to 3,200. 
Upon electrification the trains each way between Liverpool and South- 
port were increased from 36 to 65, and from Liverpool to Hall Road 
from 38 to 54. The running-time of local trains was decreased from 54 
minutes to 37 minutes between Liverpool and Southport, and from 25 
minutes to 17 minutes, between Liverpool and Hall Road. 

A third-rail installation was adopted, direct current being supplied 
at 650 volts. The main station has a total capacity of 6,750 kilowatts, 
power being generated at 7,500 volts. There are four sub-stations which 
contain the converting apparatus of 1,800 kilowatts capacity each. 

The passenger traffic is handled by multiple-unit trains. The trains 
in general comprise four cars, of which two are motors, the entire train 
weighing 140 tons. Each motor car is equipped with four 150-horse- 
power motors. 

In 1906 the electrification was extended from Southport to Crossens, 
at which time the electrification comprehended about 60 miles of single 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 187 

track. An extension has been run to connect the railroad at Seaforth 
with the Liverpool Overhead and certain trains are now run over this 
elevated railroad to Seaforth and the balance of the way over the Lan- 
cashire & Yorkshire tracks. The additional power-requirements for 
these extensions have been secured by adding a storage-battery equip- 
ment to the present power-plant. In 1907, a further extension of the 
electrification was announced. 

So far as the electrical equipment is concerned, the electrified road 
has operated very satisfactorily. There was, however, some trouble 
at the start with the main-power-station engines which delayed the 
road's being put into operation by electricity for some time. Two 
engines broke down, one having a broken shaft and another a cracked 
cylinder. In consequence, only 6 trains per hour were put on the 
service at first, later 9, and, on completion of repairs to the machinery, 
a complete service was put on. These failures were not failures peculiar 
to electrical traction, but might just as well have come to a power-plant 
owned by an industrial concern. 

Regarding the electrification of this road, Sir George Armitage, one 
of the directors, at the annual meeting of the stockholders in 1906, 
stated that ^'a full year's experience had shown that the cost for work- 
ing of trains, with proper allowance for depreciation and a more costly 
plant, were slightly higher per train mile than with the steam trains. 
They were, however, satisfied, as they had been able to do a greater 
amount of work, which would have been absolutely impossible under the 
old conditions. He also stated that they were contemplating further 
additions as the traffic was rapidly growing, and during the preceding 
year a very largely increased number of passengers had been carried by 
the electric trains. The whole system was working smoothly and well." 
(Street Railway Journal, March 3, 1906.) London correspondence to 
the Street Railway Journal (June 2, 1907,) states: ''The results from 
electrification have been marvelously good." 

One cannot but be struck by the close parallel existing between 
this electrified road and the Illinois Central, in so far as its suburban 
traffic out of Chicago is concerned. The Lancashire & Yorkshire run 
suburban trains to Southport, a distance of 18.5 miles, with occasional 
trains beyond, to Crossens. The majority of these trains are express 
trains, although some locals are run. The Illinois Central operates a 
suburban service to Harvey, a distance of 20 miles, of which the bulk 
of the trains are express trains, although a few locals are run. In addi- 
tion, some trains are run a further distance to Flossmoor. 



188 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

The Lancashire & York^ire runs about an equal number of trains, 
in addition, to Hall Road, 7 miles from Liverpool, the majority of these 
trains being locals. The Illinois Central, in addition, rims a nimiber 
of trains to Woodlawn, 7.9 miles distant from Randolph Street, a 
majority of which are locals. 

The Lancashire & Yorkshire line is almost straight from Liverpool 
to Southport and runs along the sea-coast a part of the way. The 
Illinois Central is almost straight from Randolph Street to Flossmoor, 
and runs along the lake-front part of the way. 

Taking out the South Chicago and Blue Island branches, to which 
there are similar lateral branches on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, the 
number of trains operated by the Lancashire & Yorkshire under steam 
(144 per day) is about equal to the number operated by the Illinois 
Central on its north and south hne (total number operated, excluding 
Blue Island and South Chicago, about 156 per day.) 

There is even a physical connection between the Illinois Central 
tracks and a local elevated company, as with the Lancashire & York- 
shire. The Lancashire & Y'orkshire stations were a short distance 
apart at the city and a further distance apart as the distance from the 
terminal increased, which is exactly the case with the Illinois Central. 

The Lancashire & Yorkshire is in a country where coal is reasonably 
cheap, which is also the case with the Illinois Central of Chicago. 

Indeed, so close is the parallel, that the average individual would 
have great difficulty in telling them apart if given the descriptions 
without the names. And if it is feasible and financially advantageous 
for the Lancashire and Yorkshire to have electrified its Liverpool sub- 
urban line, we do not see how it could be otherwise with the Illinois 
Central suburban lines out of Chicago. This aside from the detailed 
investigations which we have made. 

MIDLAND RAILWAY 

This railroad, in 1906, announced the electrification of its line be- 
tween Heysham Harbor (which is on the new Midland route to Belfast), 
Morecambe, and Lancaster. While this is on one of their trunks lines, 
its electrification was prompted by a desire to experiment. The neigh- 
borhood is not one from. which very great results are expected from a 
statistical point of view, but the apphcation of electrical working to 
the section is of considerable interest, as it is believed that greater 
developments will arise from it in the future. The electrification 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 189 

extends over about 8 . 5 miles of double track, which, with sidings, gives 
a total electrified trackage of 21 miles of equivalent single track. 

The single-phase system has been installed. The overhead wires 
are carried by steel lattice-work bridges in the yards, while on the line 
it is carried from two angles (with spacing-blocks between) spanning the 
tracks between poles at each side, to the sides of which the angles are 
clamped. A double-messenger wire is installed for each working con- 
ductor,, the two messengers being carried on one insulator, however. 
The carrying conductor is suspended from the double messenger by 
triangular hangers and underneath the conductor, suspended to it by 
clips midway between hangers, is carried a contact wire of No. 000 
copper. This construction was carried out in order to get rid of hard 
points in the contact wire and is similar to the later construction adopted 
by the New Haven. The contact wire is carried from 18 feet 3 inches to 
13 feet 3 inches above the tops of the rails, and is installed in lengths of 
2,400 to 3,000 feet, one end being attached rigidly to an insulator and the 
other end passing over a roller with a weight at the end in order to hold 
the conductor taut, independent of temperature variations. The con- 
tact wire is not carried directly over the center of the track, but its 
position is staggered at intervals, in order to produce uniform wear upon 
the collector-shoes. The bridges are connected by a steel cable in 
metalhc contact therewith, which cable is grounded every half mile in 
order to get rid of induction in telegraph wires. The rails are bonded to 
form a return and are groimded to the sea. 6,600-single-phase current 
is carried on the contact Hne, no feeders being employed. 

Power has been procured from an already existing power-house, 
where it is generated by gas-engine-driven alternators. 

Through trains are not handled by electricity, the system having only 
been appUed to the working of the interurban service. Standard coaches 
are hauled by motor cars the ordinary train being composed of one motor 
car and two trailers. Each motor car contains two 180-horse-power 
motors of the commutating-series type, geared to the axles, and capable 
of giving the cars a maximum speed of 55 miles per hour. Trains are 
run on a 20-niinute headway between Heysham and Morecambe (5 
miles) and a 15-minute service has been put on between Morecambe 
and Lancaster (4 miles). Trains as heavy as 161 tons (1 trailer, 7 
motors) have been run. 

Full service was inaugurated on this line with regular working, on 
June 7, 1908. 



190 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 

ITALY 

The Italian roads in general are owned by the state although a num- 
ber of lines are still under private ownership. Some of the lines are 
operated directly by the state, while others of the state-owned lines are 
operated by lessees. Coal is high in Italy, labor is cheap, a great deal 
of water power is accessible and, in addition, a good many of the railroads 
have rather heavier grades than common, and sharper curves, — all of 
which conditions favor the application of electrical traction. Some of 
the major appUcations of electrical traction in Italy have been made 
under extremely adverse conditions, and so favorable have been the 
results that large extensions are now being undertaken. 

The investigation of electrification in Italy was first designed to cover 
the possibihties of electrification of secondary roads. By a note of 
December 13, 1897, a Royal Itahan Commission was created for the pur- 
pose of inquiring '' if the electric system of traction in its existent state 
is capable of application to lines with small existent traffic, with the ends 
in view of rendering less costly their operation, of better satisfying the 
public, of separating passenger and freight traffic, and of affording a 
larger nimiber of trains daily." The report presented by this Commission 
states that in addition to directing their inquuies along these lines, they 
have considered the systems to be applied to different lengths of lines, 
the expenses of converting the road as well as those of estabUshing the 
generating stations on a mixed electrical and steam service, the security 
of public safety, the augmentation of traffic and the possible savings of 
operating expenses imder electrification. A comprehensive report was 
presented by this commission in which, after a discussion of electric 
traction, they gave the results of their investigations into the cost of 
electric traction with storage-battery cars, wiih direct-current third-rail 
systems, and with alternating-current overhead systems. The apphca- 
tions of these systems to certain existing lines was discussed and estimates 
were made covering the costs of then- installation and the probable sav- 
ings to be expected therefrom. In addition, negotiations were entered 
into T\dth the various railroads and industrial corporations concerned, 
and because of their activity, a number of experiments, both with storage 
batteries and with direct-current third rail, and overhead polyphase 
systems were imdertaken. As a result of the interest awakened, the 
electrification of two main-line routes in Northern Italy was deter- 
mined upon to test the desirability of electric traction and with the idea, 
should they prove a success, of eventually electrifying the lines through- 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 191 

out the whole of Northern Italy. Since then, constant progress has 
been made. 

VALTELLINA RAILWAY 

This line is operated by the Rete Adriatico (Adriatic Route), one 
of the two main lines in northern Italy. Sixty-seven miles of it were 
initially electrified in order to test the desirability of the electrification 
of lines throughout the north of Italy, but the electrification has been 
extended since and a further extension is now announced. The initial 
electrification section consisted of three lines extending from a junction 
point on Lake Como by the name of Colico. From Colico the three lines 
extend almost due north, due south, and due east to Chiavenna, Lecco, 
and Sondrio, respectively. The distances are: Colico to Lecco, 24.5 
miles south; Colico to Sondrio, 25.5 miles east; Colico to Chiavenna, 17 
miles north, — total, 67 miles. The lines possess numerous timnels, 
fairly sharp curves, frequent gradients, the maximum grade being 2% 
The average distance between stations is 3 miles, while that for express 
trains is 8}^ niiles. Trains leave as seldom as one hour and 40 minutes 
apart; the shortest intervals between departures (at Lecco) being 
14 minutes, and the shortest time between arrivals is 11 minutes. 
This is the reverse of conditions usually assumed as favorable to 
electrification. 

According to Smith, {Electric Railway Engineering) the resident 
population along the track is 200,000 in the whole province, while only 
54,000 hve within a mile of the railroad. The towns are all small. Lecco 
and Sondrio each have 8,000 to 9,000 population; Morbegno, Colico, 
and Chiavenna each have from 4,000 to 5,000. The traffic receipts before 
electrification (half coming from passengers and half from freight traffic) 
amounted to $3,000 per mile, and only 80 cents per train mile. This is 
much below the average on other parts of the system, the average upon 
the whole of the Adriatic line having been $7,250 per mile, of which 
$3,150 came from passenger traffic. This $7,250 per mile means a revenue 
of $1.38 per train mile, so the traffic on the other parts of the system is 
nearly twice as remunerative as on the branches chosen for electrifica- 
tion. The average fare per passenger on the electrified section has been 
24 cents, against 45 cents on the entire line. Thus the trial is being 
carried out under the severest and most unfavorable conditions (Against 
a $1.38 receipts per train mile, the average working costs in northern 
Italy are $1.03 per train mile, and of this, 15 cents is spent for fuel). 

The three-phase system has been installed. Power is generated at a 
hydraulic power-plant at Morbegno, which delivers 7,500 horse-power. 



192 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Three-phase, 15-cycle current is generated at 20,000 volts and distributed 
to the hne over an aerial transmission line. The high-tension lines are 
each composed of three copper wires of the following diameters: 

Morbegno to Castione 7 mm. 

Morbegno to Colico 8 mm. 

Colico to Chiavenna 7 mm. 

Colico to Lecco 7 mm. 

There are 10 sub-stations along the lines, each of which contains a 
300 K. V. A. -transformer, transforming the current from the trans- 
mission-line voltage of 20,000 volts to the 3,000 volts supphed the work- 
ing conductors. Over each track are carried the working conductors 
consisting of two 8-millimeter overhead wires hanging from catenary- 
messengers supported from span-wires between poles at the sides of the 
track; the third phase is carried by the bonded track return. 3,000 volts 
are used on the contact wires and the line is equipped with a sectionaUz- 
ing block system which cuts the current off the block behind until the 
occupied block is clear. In addition, the sections of conductors above 
station platforms are so arranged that the cmrent is turned off from 
them at all times, except when a train is passing. 

Passenger trains are operated by motor cars hauling a variable num- 
ber of trailers. Each motor car weighs about 53 tons and is capable of 
puUing a 250-ton passenger train at 40 miles per hour or a 400-ton freight 
train at 18 to 21 miles per hour. The original equipment of motor cars 
comprised 10. Freight is hauled by electric locomotives of approxi- 
mately 700-horse-power capacity and weighing about 50 tons each. 
The locomotives are capable of hauling 400-ton freight trains at 20 miles 
per hour, or 500-ton freight trains on a level at 19 miles per hour. They 
are equipped with cascade control over the motors and with water 
rheostats so that an imlimited voltage control is afforded. 

Since the electric traffic was inaugurated in September, 1902 (and it 
has since been in uninterrupted operation) , they have had a few troubles, 
none of which were insuperable, — and these troubles were of the kind 
which may be regarded as inevitable when we put novel apparatus into 
service under new conditions. Since the opening of the hne, the electri- 
fied section has been extended and a number of additions have been 
made to their rolling-stock. The drive-wheels of the later electric loco- 
motives are fitted with side rods and the motors drive through cranks 
and connecting rods. This has been done, we believe, to prevent a 
difference in the diameter of the drive-wheels, as wear comes on, imbal- 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 193 

ancing the loads carried by individual motors. It is believed that these 
later locomotives are the ones which have been supplied to the Simplon 
Tunnel and with which trouble was experienced, although we have been 
unable to verify this. 

Trains are run at a speed of 20 miles per hour, including stops, for 
the locals, and at 26 miles per hour, including stops, for express trains. 
Between stations, a maximum speed of 45 miles per hour is attained. 
There are 24 stations in the 67 miles of original electrification, of which 
9 stations are express stops. The results are so far satisfactory that the 
Minister of Public Works expressed his approval of a 31 -mile extension 
of the electrification southward from Lecco to Milan by way of Monza. 
The traffic on this extension, especially between ^lonza and Milan, is 
very much heavier than any north of Lecco. Another extension is being 
electrified, 26 miles long, between Lecco and Como. 

The original 67-mile electrification of the Valtellina entailed an 
expenditure of $1,240,000. Of this, $500,000 was spent upon the 
hydraulic power-plant, which plant is three times the size needed for the 
original electrification, as it was made of sufficient capacity to take care 
of subsequent extensions. The rolling-stock cost $260,000 of the amount, 
and the line construction $340,000. The central-station machinery, in 
addition to the above-quoted $500,000, amounted to $140,000. The 
total cost, divided by the 67 miles of length, gives a cost of $18,500 per 
mile. It we reduce these costs, by charging against them only the pro- 
portion of power-house and machinery cost chargeable to equipment 
necessary to take care of power-demands for the initial electrification, 
the cost works out at less than $10,000 per mile of single track, every- 
thing included. 

The following is quoted from Smith: '^Nine months' working from 
January to September, 1903, showed an energy consumption of 2,198,000 
kilowatt-hom's for 48,100,000 ton-kilometers actual traffic, or 47.5 watt- 
hours per ton-kilometer." 

The following is the power-station expenditure account for this 
period, reduced to costs per 1,000 ton-kilometers: 

Working cost of power-station per 1,000 ton-kilometers in cen- 
tesimi : 

Staff 31.5 

Oil 2.0 

Taxes and insurance 4.15 

Lighting and cleaning material 43 

Office utensils, etc 62 

Freight expenses 24 



194 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Upkeep for (a) Electrical machinery 1 . 17 

(b) Turbines and piping 1 .15 

(c) Canals 1 . 57 

(d) Traveling and personal expenses 62 

(e) Tools and apparatus 46 

Total 44.3 

That is, 0.97 centesimi per kilowatt-hour. 

To this there is to be added the cost of the line working as given below. 
Cost of upkeep of line equipment and vehicles for 1,000 actual ton-kilo- 
meters in centesimi: 

Staff: (a) On the line 32.5 

(b) In repair shop 17 . 52 

Oil 0.31 

Telegraph fees, postage 1 .03 

Transformers 2.03 

Upkeep of (a) Vehicles 9 . 44 

(b) Primary and secondary hne 2 .89 

(c) Tools 1.12 

(d) Traveling 1 . 18 

(e) Lighting of stations and vehicles 1 . 24 

(f) Taxes and insurance 11.5 

(g) Accumulators 3.5 

Repair shop 3.5 

Total 87.7 

Add 44.3 

Centesimi for 1,000 ton-kilometers 132.0 

Or: 

1 .92 centesimi per kilowatt-hour for upkeep; 

. 97 centesimi for power; 

2 . 89 centesimi per Mlowatt-hour total. 
Or: 42 cents per 1,000 ton-miles for power. 

Before the conversion, the cost of coal alone was 71 cents per 1,000 
ton-miles, on this line. 

According to Cserhati, the expenses for labor and material at the 
Morbegno power-plant from July 1, 1903, to Jime 30, 1904, were 21,553 
lire, for generating 3,420,502 kilowatt-hours, or 0. 118 cents per kilowatt- 
hour. The cost of maintenance and inspection of working conductors, 
poles, and transformer-stations was 329 lire per kilometer, or $104 per 
mile. The maintenance and repair of rolling-stock including electrical 
equipment and mechanical parts was 1.38 cents per locomotive mile. 
The total expense for tractive service including lubricating and clean- 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 195 

ing material as well as labor, amounted on the average for the year, 
with partly steam-driven freight trains, to 62 cents per 1,000 ton-miles 
and with trains moved exclusively by electricity, to 54 cents. . Com- 
paring this with a similar Austrian road, a saving of 5 . 5% on total 
invested capital was thus secured. 

Bela Valatin, quoted in the Street Railway Journal, August 5, 1905, 
states that on this road, in place of 686 train miles daily made under 
steam traction, under electrical traction 4 years later, 1242 daily train 
miles were made. 35,120 miles per electrical vehicle yearly was made, 
while the average steam locomotive mileage on the road was only 17,213. 
After three and one-half years, it had not been possible to measure any 
diminution in the section of the trolley wire. The rollers on bow collectors 
nm 12,000 miles without repair. Most of the motor cars, at the time of 
this article, had rmi over 100,000 miles and it had not yet been necessary 
to change the bearings or remove the bushings. Only two or three 
breakdowns had occurred in the time and they were due to burning-out 
the bearings in one case through sand getting into them and, in a second, 
through the oil being shut off. The maintenance of overhead line and 
switches was only a very small part of the whole cost and was quite 
unimportant. In the year and a half preceding this paper there had 
been no occasion to repair the motor windings. He states that the work- 
ing of telegraph wires has not been disturbed, although in fear of it the 
authorities made them adopt the most elaborate precautions at first. 
Only one man has been killed by the current in the entire S}^ years of 
operation, and he was killed in a sub-station through carelessness. 

It is stated in the Street Railway Journal (April 1, 1905) that the 
repair gang for line maintenance is composed of five gangs of five men 
each, the necessity for this number of men being more to have a num- 
ber on hand in times of emergency than that continual employment is 
afforded them. The total cost of maintenance of primary and second- 
ary lines, the care, attendance, and maintenance of the sub-stations, 
and the patrolling of the line on this plan, is given at $102 per mile per 
annimi. Slow-mo\dng trains on the Valtellina take off 300 amperes 
from the trolley; at 40 miles per hour, 240 amperes; and at 62 miles 
per hour, 100 amperes. At the time of the Valtellina installation, the 
equipment proposed was more or less experimental. The equipment 
was made with guaraantee that should it not prove satisfactory, it 
would be removed free of cost and the road restored to its original 
condition. It was so much of a success that the equipment was 
accepted three months before the end of the probationary period. 



196 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

In 1907, the following extensions were authorized by the Italian 
Parliament : 

Mlan-Monza-Lecco 30 miles 

Usmate-Bergamo 15 . 6 miles 

Calolzio-Ponte San Pietro 10 . 8 miles 

Total 56.4 miles 

MILAN-GALLARATE-VARESE RAILWAY 

This line is operated by the Mediterranean Railway Company and 
is one of the two main lines in the Northern part of Italy. Its electri- 
fication was determined upon in order to test the feasibility of electrical 
working for the lines in northern Italy. This particular line was chosen 
because it was badly congested and it was necessary to get a greater 
movement over the road and to provide a more attractive service in 
order to suppress competition from certain local electric roads and 
secondary steani lines. As originally electrified, the line ran from Milan 
through Varese to Porto-Ceresio. A heavy local traffic was carried by 
the road. The lines electrified were as follows : 

Milan to GaUarate 40 kilometers 

GaUarate to Porto-Ceresio 33 kilometers 

GaUarate to Laveno 31 kilometers 

GaUarate to Arona 26 kilometers 

Total 130 kilometers 

or 81 miles of single track. The line between Milan and GaUarate is 
double-track; the rest is single. The maximum grade is 2% and grades 
of 1% to 1.2% are encountered in several places. The curvature is 
generally easy. There are 28 stations on the line, the average distance 
apart being 2.9 mUes. 

A direct-current third-rail installation has been adopted, current 
being supplied at 650 volts. Power is generated by a hydraulic power- 
plant of 8,800-horse-power capacity. When the installation was first 
made a temporary steam plant of 4,200-horse-power was installed. The 
savings effected have been larger, of coiu"se, with the cheaper hydraulic 
power than with the steam power. Three-phase 25-cycle current at 
13,000 volts is generated and transmitted to five sub-stations. There 
are two transmission lines, the wires in one being 4 millimeters in 
diameter and those of the other 6 mUlimeters. The sub-stations are 
6 to 7 miles apart. Each contains seven 180-kilowatt static trans- 
formers transforming the current to 420 volts, at which voltage it is led 




o Si 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 197 

to 500-kilowatt rotary converters delivering 650-volt direct current. A 
90-pound third rail is used. 

Trains were originally made up of one motor car and one trailer, but 
about 18 months after the inauguration of the electrification, the mul- 
tiple-unit system was adopted in order to afford a greater traffic move- 
ment, and trains are now run with a variable number of motor cars and 
trailers, the usual trains containing about 6 cars. Motor cars are 
equipped with motors of a capacity of 640-horse-power and are fitted 
with double-end series parallel control. They are capable of making 56 
miles per hour maxinmm. The mean speed from Milan to Gallarate is 
27 miles an hour and over the whole line is 17 miles an hour. In 1905, 
20 motor cars and 20 trailers were owned. This equipment has since 
been considerably increased. The service was inaugurated in Novem- 
ber, 1901, on the Milan-Varese line and in June 1902, on the Varese- 
Porto Ceresio line. 

The original estimates of the Royal Italian Commission for the elec- 
trification of the Milan-Varese line covering the electrification of 105 . 7 
miles of track, was as follows : 

Cost third-rail and accessories $300,000 

Bonding of third and track rails; insulation of third 

rail and conductors for primary current 160,000 

Storage batteries, fixed machinery, and buildings 240,000 
25 double-truck motor cars, exclusive of electrical 

equipment 150,000 

Motors and accessories for above 190,000 

5 electrical locomotives 60,000 

Total $1,100,000 

Upon the electrification, according to Barbillon & Graffisch, the 
tariff was reduced 50% and the receipts thereon increased 125%, the 
daily train kilometers being increased from 580 under steam operation 
to 3,712 under electrical operation. During the first year's operation 
of this line, current reports stated that the car mileage under electric 
equipment had risen to 7,000,000 per annum against 3,000,000 under 
steam working and the passenger receipts from December 31, 1901, to 
August 31, 1902, amounted to 993,150 lire against 663,000 lire for the 
same period of the preceding year, notwithstanding a reduction in the 
fares. It is stated that the traffic on this line is now the most dense in 
Italy and that it would be impossible to obtain such a movement with 
steam; that notwithstanding the tariff reduction, the net returns upon 
capital have notably increased; and that the electrification has not only 



198 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

proven a technical success, but a commercial one. In \dew of the fact 

that the electrification of the systems throughout the whole of northern 

Italy, embracing the main line between Turin, Milan, Florence, and 

Venice, depends upon the success of this line and the ValtelUna, the 

results obtained are extremely important. 

The ItaUan Budget of 1907, contained a provision for the extension 

on these lines from 

GalLarate to Laveno 32 kilometers 

Gallarate to Arona 26 kilometers 

Total 58 kilometers 

SIMPLON TUNNEL 

The Simplon Timnel is 12.3 miles long and affords trunk-line con- 
nection between Milan, Italy, and Lucerne, Switzerland. Contracts 
were let for the electrical equipment of the tunnel late in 1905 to Brown, 
Boveri & Company, a section of the work being awarded on the Italian 
side to Ganz & Company. The three-phase system was adopted for 
the electrification although the contract for the electrical equipment 
contains a clause providing for the changing over to single-phase equip- 
ment, subsequently, if it is so desired. It is stated that the three-phase 
system was adopted temporarily because single-phase apparatus could 
not be deUvered, promptly, in time for the opening of the tunnel. This 
seems likely, since a portion of the new equipment for the Valtellina 
was sent to the Simplon Timnel when first opened. 

The power-plants are located at Brieg in Switzerland and Iselle in 
Italy. 15-cycle current is generated and delivered to the trolley wires 
at 1,300 volts. The working conductors are carried 15 feet 9 inches 
above the rails in the tunnel and 17 feet in the open. They are sus- 
pended from span-wires between iron poles (in the open) every 82 feet. 
Both passenger and freight trains will be hauled through the tunnel 
by electric locomotives. 

The locomotives ordered for the tunnel will have motors designed 
for two speeds of the locomotive, 20 and 40 miles per hour, respectively. 
The estimated weight of locomotives is 62 tons, 42 tons being on the 
drivers. Draw-bar pull at the lower speed is 1,320 pounds and at the 
higher, 6,650 pounds. The maximum weights of passenger trains are 400 
tons, and of freight trains 500 tons. The ItaUan Budget for 1907, pro- 
vided for an extension of the electrification between Domodossola and 
Iselle, 12 miles. Large storage yards are provided at each end of the 
tunnel, one of which contains 17 parallel tracks. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 199 

BREMBANA VALLEY 

The Bergamo and Brembana Valley railway, a single-phase light 
mountain road, is not an electrification in the true sense of the word, 
but is an example of the trend of electrical traction, in that its construc- 
tion was considered as a steam railroad, but it was decided to build it as 
an electrical railroad outright, — as the physical conditions of the road 
and the availability of cheap water power made it more advantageous 
to so construct it. 

The road extends between Bergamo and Giovanno Branco, 16 miles. 
The maximum grade is 2.4% and there are 17 tunnels along the route. 

A single-phase system has been installed. The power-house contains 
three 1,500-kilowatt hydraulic units. The working conductor is carried 
mostly over a single-pole bracket construction, although there is some 
bridge work. Poles are spaced 115 feet on tangents. The working con- 
ductor is suspended from a single catenary messenger and is of 8 
millimeters diameter. A No. feeder parallels the line. 

Trains are hauled by geared locomotives, of which there are five in 
use, each equipped with four 75-horse-power, single-phase motors. 
Current is collected by means of a pantagraph pneumatically operated. 
The locomotives are fitted for multiple-unit w^orking. The average 
train weighs 90 metric tons. Locomotives have an acceleration of 1.5 
miles per hour per second, and have each hauled 120 tons (metric) 
trailing load on a 2% grade at 11 miles per hour. 

ROME-CIVITA-CASTELLANA RAILWAY 

This road is similar to the preceding, having been built as an elec- 
trical road rather than a steam road into new territory, because the con- 
ditions were favorable for electrification. The road is 32 miles long. 
Passenger trains are made up of motor cars and trailers. Freight trains 
are hauled by electric locomotives. A single-phase system was adopted. 

FURTHER ITALIAN ELECTRIFICATION PROJECTS 

In 1907, the Italian Parliament appropriated 50,000,000 lire, 
($10,000,000) for electrifying the following trunk line divisions of the 
state railways. 

1. Pontedecimo-Busalla 11 kilometers 

2. Savona-S. Giuseppe 21 kilometers 

3. Bardonechia-Modena 7 kilometers 

4. Milan-Monza-Lecco 51 kilometers 

5. Usmate-Bergano 26 kilometers 



200 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

6. Calolzio-Ponte San Pietro 18 kilometers 

7. GaUarate-Arona 26 kilometers 

8. Gallarate-Laveno 32 kilometers 

9. Domodossola-IseUe 19 kilometers 

10. Pistora-Porreta 40 kilometers 

11. Naples-Torre- Annunziata-Salerno 54 kilometers 

12. Torre- Annunziata-CasteUamare 6 kilometers 

This makes 193 miles in all. The work is to begirx not later than 
1911. Nos. 1 and 2 are portions of the Genoa-Milan and Savona-Tnrin 
trunk lines. No. 3 is a portion of the Paris-Tm*in line of which the 
Mont Cenis timnel forms a part. No. 4 is an extension and Nos. 5 and 6 
are branches of the ValteUina covering connections with Bergano. Nos. 
7 and 8 are extensions of the Milan-Gallarate-Porto Ceresio line. No. 9 
is a part of the trunk line between Milan and is an extension of the Sim- 
plon Tunnel. 10 is an extension of the trunk line between Milan and 
Florence and Rome, constituting the main line through the Apennines. 
Nos. 11 and 12 are extensions from the connection between Naples and 
the Sorrentine Peninsula. 

Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 9 will probably be operated on the three-phase system 
since the lines which they join already have this system installed. Nos. 
7 and 8, for a similar reason, will be installed with a third-rail, direct- 
current installation. For No. 1, it is said that the contract has already 
been given to the Westinghouse Company, for three-phase equipment. 
It is probable that Nos. 2, 3, and 10 will also be three-phase. There 
is a possibility of Nos. 11 and 12 being shigle-phase. 

While Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 10 are comparatively short branches of trunk 
lines, they have very severe operating conditions. These are all moim- 
tain di\dsions with numerous curves, heavy grades, and long tunnels. 
Owing to constantly increasing weights, trains have difficulty in holding 
their schedules. In addition, many are single-track lines, which has 
aggravated the delays. The smoke nuisance has been a factor in deter- 
mining the electrification, particularly in the case of the Mont Cenis 
Tuimel. 

Electrification is also considered desirable for the lines running from 
the harbors of Genoa and Savona as they carry a large through business 
to other countries and also the major part of the industrial material, 
including fuel, used in the heavily populated districts of northern Italy. 
The rapid growth of industries in Lombardy and Piedmont has taxed 
these railroads to such an extent that they have had to handle the extra 
business by increasing the train loads and the schedules. They have not 
always been able to cope with the situation. Fuel famines have resulted. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 201 

forcing industrial plants to shut down occasionally. The Pontedecimo- 
Busalla is really a freight line. The more important passenger trains are 
carried on a parallel line through Ronca Tunnel. It is intended to han- 
dle freights of 400 tons trailing load up grade and heavier trains down 
grade. Freight trains will be operated by two electric locomotives, 
one at the head and the other at the other end of the train. Up-grade 
trains will be run on a 15-minute schedule at first, later; on a 10-minute 
schedule. Power for this line will be generated by a 7,500-kilowatt 
steam-turbine station at Genoa, and transmitted to three sub-stations. 
It is contemplated operating the trains 18 hours a day. 



SWITZERLAND 

As early as 1903, the Swiss government had a report prepared on the 
ad\dsability of adopting electric traction on a part of the state railways, 
and application was made to the government by a commercial company 
for permission to use electricity on a trial road 12 miles long. 

In 1904 a Commission was formed for the study of electric traction 
on the Swiss railroads. It was composed of representatives of (1) ad- 
ministrative officials of the railroad companies; (2) the five principal 
Swiss electric construction firms; and (3) of the Swiss Association of 
Electrical Engineers and of the Association des Centrales Suisses. The 
principal lines of the committee's work were (1) a general study of the 
applicability of electric traction, taking into account the various Swiss 
lines, from the lines of secondary interest to principal lines; (2) a com- 
parative study of the various electrical systems from both a financial 
and a technical point of view; (3) a study of various water powers avail- 
able and their costs of development, the cost of energy available from 
existent installations and from new installations; (4) the establishment 
of plans for development, for construction and for exploitation of some 
typical cases, basing them upon systems found to be most appropriate; 
(5) the establishment of standard types of construction details, — line 
construction, feeders, equipment, motors, locomotives, etc. 

The report was brought in in 1906, and experiments on the electri- 
fication of Swiss roads have been in progress since. 

BURGDORF-THUN RAILWAY 

This is a small road in northeastern Switzerland formerty operated 
by steam, but electrified in 1899, and opened to traffic under electrical 
working in July of that year. It is a secondary road, but it is of con- 



202 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TER^HXALS 

siderable importance because of the international communication it 
affords. The road is 25 miles long and has 15 stations along its route. 

A three-phase system has been installed. Current is generated at 
16,000 volts and carried over a transmission line to 14 sub-stations 
located in the buildings of the passenger stations. The transmission line 
is carried by three wires of 5 millimeters diameter. Each sub-station 
contains a static transformer of 4o0-kilowatt capacity, which drops the 
voltage to 750 at which pressure it is supphed to two working con- 
ductors over each track. The third phase is carried by the bonded rail. 

Motor cars hauling one or more trailers are used for passenger traf- 
fic and operate at a speed of about 22 miles per hour, including stops. 
Electric locomotives of 300 horse-power each, are provided for freight 
service. 

The cost of this electrification was as follows: 

38 kilometers of high-tension circuits including branch 

circuits $28,000 

TroUey line and track return, including 6 kilometers of 
double track at switches, feeders, poles, insu- 
lators, switches, hghtning protectors and erection 70.000 

14 450-kilowatt transformer-houses 34.000 

Station lighting and repair shop 4,000 

Electric roUing stock equipment : 6 motor cars, 2 loco- 
motives; light and heating equipment 47.000 

Reserve parts 6.000 

Total .$187,000 

According to Barbillon and Graffisch, the road is poorly operated. 
Only 17 trains per day each way are nm and it is said that a mistake has 
been made in the electrification of this road, as the traflS.c density is not 
sufficient to support the investment. 

FRIBOUEG-MOEAT RAILWAY 

This road is 13.3 miles long, extends from Fribourg to Morat, near 
Neufchatel and was formerly operated by steam. It was electrified 
about 7 years ago. It possesses a maximum grade of 3%. It was elec- 
trified because cheap water power was available and because the cost of 
operating by steam was high on account of the heavy grades. 

The usual train consists of 1 motor car and 4 trailers. 70-ton trains 
can be hauled at a speed of 22 miles per hoiu. Freight is handled by 
electricity. The operation is stated to be most satisfactory from an 
electrical and a mechanical standpoint. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 203 

MONTREUX-OBERLAND-BERNOIS RAILWAY 

This electric road, filling the place of a steam road, was built in order 
to afford connection between certain scenic points in Switzerland. It 
is 24 miles long. 

Power is generated by a hydraulic power-plant of 6,000-horse-power 
capacity, which generates 50-cycle three-phase current at 8,000 volts. 
This is transmitted over a transmission line of 6-millimeter wires, to 4 
sub-stations, 9, 10, and 11 miles apart, respectively, where, by motor 
generator sets, it is transformed to direct current and deUvered to the 
trolley line, a feeder tying into the line every 600 feet. 

The original passenger trains were hauled by electric locomotives, 
but these were given up and motor cars hauling trailers were substituted 
for passenger traffic. Each motor car is equipped with four 65-horse- 
power motors and the ordinary train is composed of one motor car and 
one trailer. The current is collected by a bow collector. Electric loco- 
motives are used for freight haulage. 

SEEBACH-WETTINGEN RAILWAY 

This is a part of the Swiss national railway system and was chosen, 
in 1904, for electrification in order to test the advisabihty of electrifying 
certain branch lines of the Swiss national railway system. The line 
is about 15 miles long and is double- tracked. In 1904, a contract was 
let to the OerUkon company for the electrification of about one-third of 
the track by the Huber system. This is a single-phase system, the most 
notable feature of which is the line construction. The working conduc- 
tor is carried on the top of insulators by chps, in such a manner that the 
collector shdes along the upper surface of the wire on ordinary installa- 
tion. The collector is a curved rod which is pressed against the wire. 
In addition to the line construction we have indicated, devices have been 
worked out which permit the installation of the conductor in almost any 
position, such as along the side of a tunnel, the collector altering its 
position to take current from such difficult positions without sparking. 
It is perhaps the most flexible arrangement of working conductor and 
collecting apparatus yet devised, viewing it from the point of the 
necessity of carrying the conductor through contracted spaces and 
under low clearances. 

Trains weighing 150 to 200 tons have been hauled over the line by 
electric locomotives, for the purposes of experiment. As the instal- 
lation has been made merely for the purpose of proving the engineering 



204 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

feasibility of electrification, a partial steam service has been retained 
on the line, — about 4 trains each way per day being run by electricity. 

The estimated cost of the line equipment for the early construction, 
including poles, contact wires, section switches, laps at sections and 
stations, and accessories of all kinds complete, erected, and in working 
order was $1,500 per kilometer, or $2,400 per mile. 

The line from Seebach to Affoltern, 2.4 miles in length, was elec- 
trified first. At present the line from Seebach to Regensdorf, 4 miles, 
has been equiped with Oerlikon equipment and 8 miles of route has been 
equipped with Siemens-Schukert equipment, the latter installing an 
overhead, single-messenger catenary construction supported from steel 
bridges. 

Two Oerlikon locomotives and one Siemens-Schukert are in use at 
present. One of the locomotives is equipped with the Ward-I^eonard 
system. 

15,000 volts are now carried on the working conductors, transformed 
to 750 volts on the locomotive. 

VALLE-MAGGIA RAILWAY 

This is a mountain road 17 miles long with a maximum grade of 3 . 3% 
connecting Locarno and Bignasco. The Oerlikon company was given 
the contract to electrify this road in 1906, with the single-phase system, 
because of its success with the Seebach- Wet tingen line. 

Power is generated by a hydrauhc plant. A fine voltage of 5,000 is 
used. Motor cars hauling trailers are used for carrying both passengers 
and freight. 

ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY 

Estimates for the electrification of this tunnel were made by the 
Oerlikon company in 1904, with a view to reducing the working ex- 
penses. The fuel cost is very high, being about 20 cents per train mile. 
It was estimated that the expense could be reduced to 14.5 cents per 
train mile. This figure includes interest on reserve fimd as well as 
maintenance expenses of the system. The Oerlikon engineers estimated 
that it would cost about $1,000,000 to establish electric traction 
between Erstfeld and Bellinzona. A saving under electrification of 
10% on the total capital investment in the tunnel and the electrifica- 
tion, it was believed, would be effected, or of 30% on the electrification. 

VElectricita published an announcement in November, 1906, that 
work upon the plan for the electrification had been ordered begim and 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 205 

that the section of the road from Zurich to Lucerne would be constructed 
as an experiment, but this work has not yet been carried out. 

STANSSTADT-ENGELBURG 

On this electrically-equipped Swiss mountain road, 14 miles long, a 
three-phase system is installed, current being generated by water power. 
Considerable freight traffic is handled by electricity, in addition to 
passenger traffic. 

FRANCE 

PARIS-ORLEANS RAILWAY 

This is an electrification of the Paris-Orleans railway into their 
Paris terminal. The Paris-Orleans is a very important railway system. 
It extends to the Spanish frontier and furnishes the most important 
communication to Toulouse and Bordeaux on the south and reaches 
Brest on the west. A new depot was built near the center of Paris 
to which access was had from their former station by means of a 
tunnel 2 . 5 miles long. The electrification was determined upon largely 
in order to obviate the production of smoke in this tunnel. Electric 
traction on this terminal section was inaugurated in Jime, 1900. All 
trains, except fast, through, limited, trains are hauled into the terminal 
by electricity. These latter go through the tunnel by steam. Freight 
trains are hauled over the line by steam, as the freight terminal is reached 
before the tunnel section; the freight yards being at Austerlitz, the 
former terminal. 

The suburban traffic of this railroad was not large prior to the elec- 
trification, as the old terminal (Austerlitz) was too far from the center 
of the city. After the inauguration of the new terminal at the Quai 
d'Orsay, the desirability of building up the suburban traffic became 
apparent, — (1) because of the possible opportunities of having this 
traffic add a profit and (2) because of the desirability of extending the 
scope of their electrification beyond the short section originally elec- 
trified, in order to permit a more intensive working of the existent plant 
and in order to afford a more even demand upon the electrical equip- 
ment. In 1903, the extension of the zone to take in the electrical 
working of suburban traffic was decided upon and the electrification 
was extended over 12 route miles of double track, with a number of 
switches and sidings. This extension is from Austerlitz to Juvisy, 
which latter is a junction point with the Grande Ceinture, or Belt Rail- 
way, encircling Paris; the extension also connecting with the Paris, 



206 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Lyons & Mediterranean railway. New passenger stations for sub- 
urban traffic have been built and a frequent and fast suburban service 
has been put on. At the same time, instead of attaching the electric 
locomotives to the trains at Austerhtz, they are attached at Juvisy. 
Through trams are hauled by electric locomotives and the suburban 
traffic is handled by multiple-unit trains. Electric locomotives haul 
from 150 to 200 trains per day, weighing about 150 tons on an aver- 
age and 350 tons at a maximum. The terminal station comprises 16 
tracks. Between Juvisy and Quai d'Orsay, 14 miles, there are 8 stops. 
Suburban trains which make all stops, make this trip in 34 to 38 
minutes, stopping one-half to one minute at each station, or an average 
speed of 28.5 miles per hour. Trains making only two stops, make 
the trip in 26 minutes, and their average speed is about 31 miles per 
hour. Speed is hmited in the tunnel on account of curves. The average 
daily mileage is 124 miles for electric locomotives and 155 miles for 
motor cars. 

The power-station is at Ivry and contains 3 four-cylinder triple- 
expansion Corhss engines direct connected to 1,000-kilowatt alternators, 
or a total of 3,000 kilowatts in the original installation. Three-phase 
25-cycle 5, 500- volt current is generated and carried to three sub- 
stations where it is converted into 650-volt direct current and deUvered 
to the working conductors. A third-rail system is installed. Con- 
ductors are 52-pound T-rail with a flat bar on each side, the bars weigh- 
ing 26 pounds per yard. The rail is carried on blocks of creosoted 
wood on the ends of the ties and is improtected except at stations. 
The usual interruption of conductor rails at crossings and station 
platforms occurs. Sectionalizing switches are arranged to be operated 
from a distance by the operators in the interlocking and signal towers. 

There are 11 electric locomotives each having a pair of trucks with a 
motor on each axle. The engines run Hght at 62 miles per hour on a 
level, or 43 . 5 miles per hour when hauling a 200-ton train, or can haul 
a 300-ton train the 3 . 8 miles on 1 . 2% grade between Austerhtz and 
Quai d'Orsay, in 7 minutes. The later locomotives are built with a car 
body, the electrical apparatus being contamed in a cab at one end and 
the bulk of the locomotive given over to a baggage compartment. 
Only one man is carried on the locomotive. Motor cars are built for a 
speed of 50 miles per hour. The earher ones are fitted with four 
80-horse-power motors each, or 320-horse-power total. The later ones 
each have four 125-horse-power geared motors. They are fitted with 
multiple-unit double-end control. A typical train is made up of two 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 207 

motor cars with five to seven trailers between. This arrangement is 
adopted to avoid terminal switching. Such a train weighs 175 tons 
empty and has seats for 520 passengers. Subm*ban service has been 
in regular operation since July 1, 1904, when 70 to 80 trains each way 
daily were put on, this number having been increased since. 

It is stated that an extension of the suburban service of 8 miles to 
Bretigny is contemplated. 

The following figm-es are extracted from a paper by Dubois, read 
before the International Railway Congress, in 1905: 

The construction costs for traction alone were 
approximately : 

Power stations, 2,000 kilowatt $413,000 

Transmission system, 22.18 miles 103,000 

Sub-stations (3) 215,000 

Worldng conductors 37.29 miles 463,000 

Rolling stock (11 locomotives, 5 motor cars). . . . 280,000 

Miscellaneous 16,000 

Total $1,490,000 

The results of operation on the Austerlitz-Quai d'Orsay section, in 1903, 
were: an average number of trains per day of 150, covering the dis- 
tance (2 . 5 miles) in 7 minutes for express trains and 9 minutes for locals. 
Average speed between stops 28.3 miles per hour express, and 16.5 
miles per hour for locals. Maximum speed 31 miles per hour. 
Mileage of Locomotives: 

Hauling trains • 139,856 

Not hauling trains or switching 30,328 

Total 170,184 

Total miles per locomotive 15,115 

Total ton-mileage, not including locomotive 23,601,505 

Energy consumed at switchboard 1,367,080 kilo- 
watt-hours; total ton-mileage or 58.1 watt- 
hours per ton-mile, or 97.73 per ton-mile useful 
mileage. 

The average cost per train mile was $0 . 2555 

Or 165374 

per train kilometer, made up as foUows: 

Depot charges $0 .003312 

Train staff 062304 

Electric energy 081810 

Lubrication 001944 

Various expenses .001004 

Maintenance and repairs .015000 

Total $0. 165374 



208 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

The cost of power, which is the largest item, was as follows at power- 
station : 

Staff $0.0025828 

Fuel 0044384 

Lubrication 0003376 

Miscellaneous 0005522 

Maintenance and repair 0001468 

Total $0.0080578 

Cost per kilowatt-hour at sub-station terminals: 

Energy . 080578 -^ .782= $0.0103040 

Staff 0014746 

Lubrication and miscellaneous 0000290 

Maintenance and repairs including transmission 

system 0005522 

General expenses 0001468 

Total $0.0134706 

The cost of labor is said to be high, as the service is really a switch- 
ing ser\dce. Thus the average yearly mileage for this year of a 
locomotive car is only 11,345 miles. 

Mr. Dubois stated that the maintenance of the electric plant is very 
small ; that the cost of working is higher than the cost of steam traction 
on the whole Orleans system, but that the special service, which is 
really a switching service, should be taken into consideration. He 
predicted that when the service from Paris to Juvisy should be started, 
this cost would be less, as a greater mileage of equipment would be 
obtained and the power station would be working nearer its designed 
capacity. This prediction came true, as after the extension of electric 
traction to suburban service it was announced that the annual kilometric 
run of electric trains had increased from 225,000 to more than 500,000 
and that the cost of traction per train kilometer had decreased to about 
60 centimes, — that is, a reduction from 16.54 cents to 11.58 cents. 

PARIS-VERSAILLES RAILWAY 

The Chemins de Fer de I'Ouest operates a suburban service between 
Paris and Versailles, a distance of 10 . 94 miles. It was formerly oper- 
ated by steam, but was electrified in 1901, electrical service being 
inaugurated in July of that year. Most of the road follows the old 
steam- road with the exception that the electrified section branches off 
at Mollineux, about 400 yards outside the old fortifications of Paris 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 209 

and rejoins at Viroflay the old line from Versailles to Mont Parnasse, 
traversing the wood of Meudon in a tunnel about 3,700 yards long. The 
reason for its electrification was stated by M. Sabouret of the French 
Western railway to be the existence of the terminal station at Paris, 
which is partially underground and of this tunnel, with a continuous up 
grade of .8%, it being necessary to avoid making smoke in both places. 

A third-rail direct-current equipment has been installed. The 
power-house at Mollineux generates three-phase 25-cycle 5,000-volt cur- 
rent which is carried in 3-conductor cables, in conduits in the ground, 
to three sub-stations located at Champs de Mars, Meudon, and Viroflay, 
respectively. Each sub-station contains a 30-kilowatt rotary converter 
which converts the current into 550-volt direct current which is fed into 
the third rails. The third rail is carried on paraffined wood insulators 
spiked down to the ties every three or four yards. Feeders are connected 
into the third rail every kilometer. Sectionalizing switches are installed 
at convenient intervals. The bonded track is used as a return. 

Electric locomotives were originally used in this service but they 
have been replaced almost exclusively by motor cars, standard multiple- 
unit equipment being now used. A service of about 5 trains per hour 
each way was originally installed. The following operating figures are 
selected from a paper read by Mr. Paul Dubois before the International 
Railway Congress in 1905: 

Total electric mileage 1903, 228,153,— 188,230 of which was by elec- 
tric locomotives. Total ton miles, 19,301,192. Power consumption, 93 
watt-hours per ton mile at switch-board, or 66 at train, the weight of 
the locomotive not being counted. 

Cost per kilowatt-hour at station, maintenance of 

high tension cables included $0 .002852 

Staff 007440 

Lubrication, water, maintenance and repairs. . . . .000744 

General expenses .001364 

Total $0.012400 

and at sub-stations, per kilowatt-hour .0240 

Coal costs $4.00 per ton. Coal consumption 

per kilowatt-hour 3 . 738 pounds 

Cost of traction per train mile was as follows: 

Train staff and motormen $0 . 03244 

Electrical energy . 16686 

Lubrication and miscellaneous .00588 

Maintenance and repair of locomotives and motor 

cars 05006 



210 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Maintenance and repair of working conductors at 

$233 per mile 02410 



Total per train mile $0 . 27934 

The average annual mileage is 19,260 per locomotive and 33,210 per 
motor car, including switching and running empty. 

FAYET-CHAMOUNIX RAILWAY 

This road is owned by the Paris, Lyons & Mediterranean System. 
It is a scenic branch of road into the French Alps, and because of its 
steep grades it was never operated by steam, but was electrically 
equipped from the first. It is, however, a portion of a standard steani 
railroad system. The line is about 11 miles long. 

A standard direct-current third-rail construction has been adopted. 
Power is generated at a hydraulic plant of 2,000-horse-power capacity. 

Trains of multiple-unit cars are used, four to five coaches being run 
to a train. 

The line was put into operation in 1902. It was not intended to 
operate during the winter months, the company being authorized by its 
concession to suspend its operation during the winter months and to 
charge fares double those obtaining on the main lines of this road. The 
results of its working were so satisfactory, however, that it is now oper- 
ated the year round, except when heavy falls of snow prevent. Eight 
trains each way per day are run. 

The train mileage in 1903 was 36,040 miles. Ton mileage 4,109,728. 
The watt-hour consumption (over a heavy grade) is 146 per ton mile. 
Power costs 0.8 cents per kilowatt-hour. The total cost of operation 
is $0.6026 per train mile. 

MOSELHUTTE RAILWAY 

This was a steam road 8.7 miles long connecting the Moselhutte 
Iron Mines in Lorraine with some blast furnaces owned by the same 
company at Ste. Marie. A 3% grade is encountered in both directions. 
Steam locomotives double-headed were only able to haul 200 to 300 ton 
trains and make the round trip in two hours. About 2,600 tons of 
freight per day were hauled by steam. Because of a desire to get greater 
capacity out of the road, its electrification was decided upon and 
contracts let to the Siemens-Schukert Works. 

Three-phase power is generated at 5,700 volts and the current trans- 
mitted to a sub-station at each end of the line. Sub-stations deliver 
their current to the line at 2,000 volts direct current. A trolley line con- 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 211 

struction is adopted, two overhead wires 5 inches apart being carried 
above each track. 

Three locomotives have been suppUed, each weighing 55 tons. The 
locomotives are each equipped with four 160 horse-power 2,000 volt 
motors. Current is taken from the wires by double-jointed bow collect- 
ors. The traffic over the line is exclusively freight. 

LA MURE RAILWAY 

The Chemins de Fer de la Mure in the Grenoble region, in south- 
eastern France, had a heavy freight traffic between St. Georges de Com- 
miers and La Mure, 20 miles apart, which they had great difficulty in 
handling under steam. The road is single track, possesses a maximum 
grade of 2%% nearly the whole way, has a minimum cm've radius of 100 
yards and has a traffic mostly of freight and coal, with a small passenger 
service. A revenue of $7,000 per kilometer, or $11,650 per mile was 
received from the road and it became impossible to move the traffic 
by steam. The steam locomotives were of 37 and 41 tons weight respec- 
tively and had difficulty in hauling trains with 12 or 14 empty cars up 
this grade. The traffic, in general, consists in running empty coal 
cars up the grade and loaded ones down. 

Convenient water-power was available. Electrification was intro- 
duced in 1903, and put into working in August of that year, the 
exploitation being done directly by the French Government. 

Power is generated at a hydraufic station. A span wire, overhead 
troUey construction is adopted, two wires being carried over each track, 
one being supplied with 1,200- volt positive current and the other with 
1,200-volt negative, giving a potential difference of 2,400 volts, the 
bonded track serving as a neutral third wire. The working conductors 
are 12 millmeters in diameter, feeder wires 9 millimeters. 

Electric locomotives weighing 50 tons, equipped with 550-horse- 
power motors, capable of hauling 20 cars of a gross weight of 110 tons 
up the grade at 13 miles per hour and of handling a 330-ton train down 
grade are used. 

According to Dubois, the up-hill energy consimiption is 219 watt- 
hours per ton-mile. Adding the consumption for other purposes makes 
an expenditure of about 125 kilowatt-hours for running up a train of 20 
empty cars (110 tons) and running it down loaded. At one cent per 
kilowatt-hour, this entails an expenditure of $1.25 against a former 
expenditure of $1.88 for coal for the same work, coal costing ,$5.60 
per ton. 



212 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

PRUSSIA 

Prussian Government experiments date back about 7 years. In 1900, 
some preliminary high speeds tests were made by Siemens and Halske, 
following which, a society for the study of electric traction at high 
speeds for steam roads was formed at Berlin by representatives of (a) 
several important banking houses; (b) industrial houses; (c) the firms 
of Krupp and Borsig; (d) and the two strongest German electrical 
manufacturing companies, namely Siemens and Halske, and ^'L'Allge- 
meine Electrictats GeseUschaft." This association had the assistance 
of the German Government. Under its auspices were conducted some 
very remarkable high-speed trials which had the demonstration of the 
practicability of very high speeds under electrical traction as their object. 
A 14-mile stretch of track was secured with curves of 1,000 yards radius 
and relaid with heavy steel rails. In 1901 and 1902 a series of tests were 
carried out on this track, known as the Berlin-Zossen tests. A three- 
phase equipment was provided, current being dehvered at 10,000 volts, 
motor voltages of 1,850 volts being used. Both electric motor cars haul- 
ing trailers and electric locomotives were used in the tests. In them, 
the remarkable speed of 130 miles per hour was attained. After this, 
the electrification of certain roads from Berlin and from Hambm'g 
was carried out in 1901 to 1904, and governmental research has been 
made as to the feasibility of electrifying certain of the government rail- 
ways, particular attention being given to those lines v/hich would show 
a big sa\ing in fuel consumption, as there are large deposits of lignite 
and of the poorer grades of coal available in Germany which could be 
utihzed in the boilers of an electrical power-plant and which are not well 
adapted to consumption on railroads. These government investigations 
have resulted in definite proposals to electrify certain trimk lines in 
the fuel district. 

BERLIN-WANNSSEE RAILWAY 

The Berlin- Wannssee Railway is a part of the Prussian state railways, 
forming a portion of the Berlin-Potsdam line. It is a Httle over 7 miles 
long and is a double-track road rimning from Berlin to the suburbs. 
The electrification was begun in 1901, 2 motor cars and 8 trailers being 
tried in service for a year in competition with steam traffic on the line. 
A 650-volt direct-current equipment was provided, a third-rail construc- 
tion being installed. After the system had shown its serviceability, 
the complete electrification of the road was carried out. 

At present, 10-car trains are rim, weighing 193 to 210 tons. The 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 213 

first and last cars of these trains are motor cars. The distance from 
Berhn to Potsdam, 7}^ miles, is made in 20 minutes. A maximum 
speed of 55 miles per hour is made. 

SPINDLERSFELD-NIEDERSCHOENWEIDE RAILWAY 

This road is a part of the Government steam roads and was formerly 
operated by steam. It is in the vicinity of Berlin. It has been electri- 
fied with a single-phase system for experimental purposes. It is only 
about 13^ miles long. The electrification was carried out in 1903 and 
the service opened to the public in June of that year. After a year's 
probation, it was taken over by the Government. 

The line construction is a catenary suspension from a single messen- 
ger. In certain parts, a double catenary is used. Only one train is in 
use, comprising two motor cars and three trailers. It makes about 40 
round trips per day. It is interesting to note that no reserve equip- 
ment is carried. When repairs are necessary to a motor coach, a 
shorter train carrying only one motor car is run. So far, little trouble 
has been experienced. 

HAMBURG-BLANKENESE-OHLSDORF RAILWAY 

This line is a portion of the Royal Prussian railways and was changed 
over to electrical working on the single-phase system in 1905. Single- 
phase current at 6,300 volts is carried on the working conductor. Single- 
messenger catenary suspension line work is installed. A working 
conductor is suspended beneath the carrying conductor, similar to the 
new construction on the New Haven. On the city sections of the line 
a low voltage is adopted and the low-tension conductor is carried at a 
lesser height from the track than the high-tension wires in the country 
sections. The high-tension collectors have sliding contacts of alumi- 
num, while the low-tension collectors are of the roller type. The low- 
tension collectors are short and can never spring high enough to come 
into contact with the high-tension wire. When the overhead collectors 
change from the proper height for the high-tension wires to the proper 
height for the low-tension wires, a commutating switch which is con- 
nected pneumatically and electrically with the collectors changes the 
connection of the motors from the transformer to the trolley wires 
direct. 

Two-car trains are run at a maximum speed of 36 miles per hour under 
a three-minute headway. 



214 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

STADT UND RINGBAHN 

In the summer of 1907, Dr. W. Reichel, of the Berlin Technical High 
School, submitted estimates to the Prussian Government for the elec- 
trification of the Stadt Bahn, a connecting steam suburban hne through 
Berlin, and the Ring Bahn, a belt line around the city. He estimated 
that an expenditure of $20,000,000 would suffice for the electrification 
of 120 miles of this road. Following the decision of the Prussian Govern- 
ment to electrify these roads, a commission came to the United States in 
August, 1907, to study electrical transmission systems. According to 
Berlin papers, the plan decided upon was made public by Minister Breit- 
tenbach of the Railw^ay Department. The plan is to divide the system 
of 366 miles into two sections, one to be electrified by 1913 and the other 
to be electrified by 1920. 

The single-phase system with a trolley voltage of 10,000 volts will 
probably be used. 

EXPERIMENTAL TRACK 

The Prussian Government has in use this year (1908) a circular track 
of 1.08 miles at Oranienburg, about 31 miles north of Berlin, equipped 
for carrying out experiments with electric high-speed construction. 

COLOGNE-BONN RAILWAY 

This line is a former steam line 17.6 miles long, extending between 
Cologne and Bonn. A direct-current catenary construction with two 
trolley wires over each track is employed, 990-volts direct-current being 
supplied outside the cities. Within the city limits of Cologne and Bonn 
a trolley voltage of 500 volts is adopted, current being bought from local 
companies. The 990-volt current for the country section is supphed 
from a steam power-station at the center of the line. Freight is handled 
by steam on this line. 

EIFELBAHN 

Annoimcements were made in October, 1907, that the electrification 
of the Eifelbahn had been determined upon. This is a road which 
extends from Cologne to Treves, with 112 miles of double track. It runs 
through a bleak, mountainous, rugged, volcanic plateau seamed with 
gorges and situated between the rivers Rhine,^Moselle, and Roer. Most 
of the road is up or down hill. It starts at Cologne at an elevation of 
120 feet, crosses the watershed at an elevation of 1,815 feet, 52 miles 
from Cologne, and drops to 435 feet at Treves. It runs through an 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 215 

important coal, iron, and smelter district. Another road rimning up 
the Rhine is in competition with it, but the road is overcrowded. 

This road is so hilly that only small trains can be pushed over it, 
while it is estimated that with single-phase locomotives, 1000-ton trains 
can be handled, — besides which, there would be great economy, par- 
ticularly since one of the power-stations can be located on the lignite beds 
near Cologne and that fuel can be used. 

A cheap trolley construction is contemplated, carrying 10,000 volts 
on the hne, the power to be transmitted by a 30,000-volt transmission 
line. Late reports are to the effect that the electrification of this road 
has been vetoed by the War Department, on account of its being near 
the frontier, its electrification making it more vulnerable to attack m 
time of foreign invasion. 

LEIPSIC-HALLE RAILWAY 

The Prussian Government authorities are at present working on a 
plan for the electrification of the Leipsic-Bitterfeld-Magdeburg and 
the Leipsic-Halle, both of which are operated from Halle. Between 
Leipsic and Halle are extensive deposits of coal and it is contemplated 
locating the power-plant in the center of the coal district and supplying 
single-phase current at 10,000 volts to the railroad. The Leipsic- 
Bitterfeld-Magdeburg- line is 79 miles long and the Leipsic-Halle line 
23 miles long. Preliminary investigations have been made by the man- 
agement, but they are having the Halle officials check them, according 
to press reports. 

SAXONY 

DRESDEN-MICHTEN KOETSCHENBRODA 

This was a steam road belonging to the Royal Saxon railways and 
doing practically a street railway traffic. In 1899, the Saxon Govern- 
ment turned it into a standard trolley road with an auxiliary steam 
service. 

BAVARIA 

Early in 1908, the Bavarian Government announced its intention to 
electrify a part of the state railway system. Cheap water-power is 
available and it is proposed to make use of it. A few branch lines are 
first to be electrified as a trial and if it is successful, the electrification 
is to be extended. Important military authorities will not give consent 
yet to electrifying the main line. 



216 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Two projects are announced. The line from Berclitesgaden to 
Reichenhall and Salzburg, a distance of 40 kilometers, will be electrified. 
Power is to be delivered from the Saalach, where a 5,000-horse-power 
station to cost $375,000, will be constructed. The second line is between 
Garmisch and Griesen, 9 miles. A 20,000-horse-power station will be 
built, to cost $315,000, and $215,000 will be spent upon line equipment. 

Twelve locomotives are stated to be an order, to cost $180,000. 

The Salzbm^g-Berchtesgaden line has already been converted. This 
is OT\med jointly by the Bavarian Government and the Salzburg Tram- 
way Company of Austria. A high-tension direct-current system has 
been adopted, the voltage on the Bavarian section being 900 and that on 
the Austrian section 750. The freight business is still carried by steam 
locomotives. 

The Electric Railway Journal (Jime 30, 1908) announced that the 
Bavarian Government has decided to introduce electric traction on 
three railway lines near the Austrian frontier. In an official report just 
issued on this project, the cost of equipping the power-line is stated to be 
estimated at $442,500, and the power reqmred 1,700,000 kilowatt-hours 
annually. The cost of the entire project is estimated at $5,500,000. 
It is further stated that an international competition for designs will be 
held. 

AUSTRIA 

Electrification in Austria has been largely experunental, although 
some small railways have been electrified and an investigation is being 
made into the electrification of the mountain division of the main fine 
road between Paris and Vienna. 

In 1902, a three-phase high-tension road at the WoUersdorf Arsenal, 
one mile long, was equipped and put into operation for experunental 
purposes by the Austrian War Department. On this line 3,000 volts 
was carried on the trolley. An electric locomotive was used for haulage. 
The voltage at the motors was 300 volts. 

VIENNA STADT BAHN 

This is a suburban road out of Vienna, still operating under steam 
over a double-track line 17.2 miles long, 22% of which is in tunnels. 
Trains of 130-tons weight are hauled. As an experiment, the Krizik 
Works were authorized in 1905 to electrify a li^-mile length from the 
Custom House to Praterstern. The Praterstern section was chosen 
because it is the most difficult on the road. The average distance 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 217 

between stations on this section is 2,050 feet, while on the whole road 
the average distance is 3,115 feet. This section has a 2% grade and a 
heavy curve. 

A three-wire direct-current system is employed, two wires carrying 
1,500 volts negative and positive respectively, the bonded track taking 
the place of the neutral wire. Center pole bracket construction is 
adopted. Stub tracks and switches have only one wire carried over them. 
This allows half speed and prevents complicated overhead work, half 
speed being all that is required at such points. Hauling is done with 
electric locomotives, each equipped with four 750-volt 200-horse-power 
motors, two being always in series. The locomotive weighs 29 tons and 
is equipped with two pantographs, a separate one collecting current from 
each wire. No sub-stations are employed. It is beheved that by the 
equipment of this road electrically, the headway between trains can be 
reduced from 3 to 2.5 minutes during the rush hours. There is a power 
consumption of 77 watt-hours per ton-mile. 

VIENNA-BADEN RAILWAY 

This is a line 17 miles long, partly a connection of street car Hnes and 
of steam suburban lines, the conversion of which into a single-phase elec- 
trical line was decided upon in 1905. This work has now been carried 
out. 

Three-car trains are run, each consisting of 1 motor car and 2 trailers. 
The motor cars are each equipped with four 40-horse-power motors. 
Current is taken off by a double pantograph collector. . 

TABOR & BECHYNE 

This is an electrification of a road in Bohemia (opened on June 22, 
1903) with a 1,400-volt direct-current equipment similar to that of the 
La Mure road in France. The road does principally a passenger business. 

BUDAPEST ROADS 

On February 28, 1905, the Royal Hungarian Minister of Trade 
authorized the electrification of the following lines of steam railway: 

Budapest to Szent-Endre. 

Budapest to Czinkota. 

Budapest to Soraksar. 
They aggregate 35 miles of track. 



218 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

ARLBERG TUNNEL 

The exceedingly difficult country over which they operate, which 
makes the cost of operating steam locomotives excessive, has caused the 
Austrian Railway officials and the Bureau of Electric Traction to make 
extensive plans for the electrification of steam trunk line systems. The 
abundant water-power available will save Austria's coal supply and 
reduce the operating cost. 

It was announced in 1907, that the Arlberg Tunnel Division of the 
Austrian State Railways would be electrically equipped. This division 
lies between Innsbruck and Feldkirch in the Austrian Tyrol, and forms 
a part of the through line from Vienna via Innsbruck and Zurich to 
Paris. The division for which electrification is proposed is 140 miles 
long and is single track, except for a double track line at its summit 7 
miles long. The maximum grade on the west side is 3.14%, and on 
the east side 2.64%. Curves are numerous, but of large radius. 40 
trains per day are run over the line in each direction. Of these trains, 
one- third are passenger and the balance freight. Three phase loco- 
motives will be used of 3,000 horse-power each, weighing 60 tons. This 
will enable 25% to 30% greater speed to be made than under steam, 
and the capacity of the line will be increased 50%. It is estimated that 
50 locomotives will be required, 5 or 6 of which will be necessary for a 
reserve. An hydrauhc plant of 40,000 to 50,000 kilowatts will be re- 
quired. 

It is probable that the tunnel will be electrified ffi^st, and should the 
results be found advantageous, the electrification will be extended to 
cover the scope indicated. The tunnel is 7 miles long. It was an- 
noimced in November, 1907, that Mr. C. L. Demuralt of New York 
had been appointed consulting engineer to the Austrian Government 
to electrify this tunnel. 

SWEDEN 

The Swedish State Railways comprise two north and south lines 
with very few branches. Their electrification has been determined 
upon by the Government in order to take advantage of available water 
power, and in the belief that the price of coal will soon rise to a point at 
which it will be more economical to operate the roads electrically than 
by steam locomotive traction. For the present, it is estimated that 
electrical working will produce somewhat of a deficit, but it is con- 
sidered to the good of the nation to expend slightly more money, and 
keep it in circulation within the kingdom, than to send money outside 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 219 

of Sweden for coal. The Swedish Government, in 1904, began to make 
arrangements to acquire water powers to be utiUzed in their electrifi- 
cation work. In 1905, the Government asked a grant of 4,000,000 
crowns to buy water falls for use in electrification work and, in 1906, a 
bill passed Parhament authorizing a grant for the purchase of water 
falls belonging to private individuals with a view to utilizing them for 
power on electric railways. It was proposed expending $1,250,000 
for purchasing water falls considered necessary for working railways 
in the near future. 

According to Mr. Dahlander, the electrical engineer for the Swedish 
state railways, the lack of feeders to their roads taken in connection 
with the sparse traffic, presents a very imfavorable condition as regards 
the economy of electrification and, consequently, all the changes will 
be made at the least possible cost. One favorable circumstance, how- 
ever, is the availabihty of water powers which in general are quite 
near the main lines so that expensive transmission systems can be dis- 
pensed with. To fill the power gaps which would be left by the 17 hydro- 
electric plants, totaling 80,000 horse-power, there will be 5 steam sta- 
tions totaling 22,000 horse-power. The fuel to be used for these stations 
is a turf which has been foimd unavailable for locomotive use. The 
annual expenses for interest on the investment maintenance and re- 
newals of the transmission lines, hydro-electric and steam power stations, 
operating cost, wages, etc., are figured at $2,667,500, while a saving re- 
sulting from giving up the steam service is estimated at $2,181,500, 
lea\dng a yearly deficit of $485,000. On this basis, the Swedish Govern- 
ment has consented to electrification in the beHef that the present price 
of coal (about $4.73 per ton) is an extraordinarily low one, and if the 
price of coal should advance only $1 . 45 (and at times it has been $3 . 05 
higher), electrical operation would be cheaper than steam. An increase 
in the traffic would also involve less expense with electrical operation 
than with steam, as in the latter case the cost is proportionate to the 
number of trains. Mr. Dahlander estimated the cost of trans- 
mission system per kilometer at $3,637.50; cost of locomotives per kilo- 
meter $2,425; the charge per horse-power year at the hydraulic plants 
at $11 . 64, and the average for all hydraulic and steam stations would be 
$14 . 00 per horse-power year. 

In 1904, it was announced that experiments would be made on the 
line between Stockholm and Jufra, and that a temporary power sta- 
tion would be installed at Tomteboda, bids being called for on the 
proposition. 



220 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Two electric locomotives and two motor cars were ordered in 1906 
for experimental work. It was determined to adopt the single- phase 
system, and to experiment on various Une voltages. 

In 1905, an appropriation of $115,000 was made to carry out ex- 
periments on the lines near Stockholm above referred to. The first 
section electrified was the ^mile section between Tomteboda and Var- 
tan. The first trials were made in June, 1905, 18 round trips a day 
being made over this section as a rule, but occasionally none by elec- 
tric trains. It was planned later to install regular service between 
the Stockholm Railway Station and the suburban town of Tarfoa, 
over a 4-mile stretch of double track, and to institute a freight haulage 
by electric locomotives between Tomteboda and Vartan. 

A catenary construction was adopted for the main line and ex- 
perimental line voltages carried from 5,000 to 20,000. Passenger trains 
are made up of motor cars and trailers, and freight is hauled by electric 
locomotives. As soon as these experiments are finished, the electrifi- 
cation of the entire state line will be undertaken. 

HELSINBORG-RAA-RAMLOSA RAILWAY 

In December, 1906, there was completed the electrification of a 
light railway connecting Helsinborg with Raa and Ramlosa. Helsin- 
borg is a seaport town of 35,000 inhabitants; Raa is a fishing town; 
while Ramlosa is a seaside resort. The road was originally a narrow 
gauge steam road, but the gauge was broadened and new rails laid when 
it was electrified. 

Trolley construction was adopted. The fine is 11.8 miles long and 
of double track. The line from Raa to Ramlosa is only operated in 
simimer; the line from Helsinborg to Raa, 4 miles long, is operated the 
year roimd. Power is supplied from a gas-engine power-plant. 

Upon completion of the electrification, 17 trains each way were 
put on, against 9 under steam. 200-ton freight trains are hauled by 
electricity. 

BELGIUM 

State-owned roads in Belgium, in general, are small lines. At the 
same time, some of them support a reasonably dense trafl&c. Mr. Em. 
Uytborck visited the United States in 1907, in behalf of the Belgian 
government, to make investigations into electrical traction with a view 
toward applying it to certain Belgian lines. It has been decided that 
these would be equipped with direct-current apparatus, current being 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 221 

supplied by a third rail, but the scope of the contemplated electrifications 
has not yet been made public. 

BORINAGE RAILWAY 

This railroad is owned by the Societe Nationale des Chemins de Fer 
Vicinaux, operating about 1,300 miles of very light roads in Belgium. 
The conversion of this road was decided upon in 1903; 12 miles of road 
were electrified at first, an announcement being made that it would be 
extended to 77. The line connects several coal-mining towns and runs 
largely along their streets. The maximum grade is 7.1%. It is little 
better than a street railway proposition. 

The single-phase system has been installed with overhead trolley 
and overhead return. 6,600 volts is carried on the feeder wire and 600 
volts on the trolley. An hourly service each way has been put on, 
trains being composed of one motor and one trailer car. The motor cars 
are capable of hauling two loaded freight trailers. 

Ultimately five lines will be converted, largely single track, with 
some double track. These are: 

St. Ghislan to Framieres 9.6 miles 

St. Ghislan to Eugies 6.3 miles 

Quaregnon to Eugies 6.4 miles 

Quaregnon to Framieres 7.4 miles 

Paturage to Wasmes 6.8 miles 

NORWAY 

A small and unimportant road between Hafslaund and Sandesund 
has been converted into an electric road. Freight is hauled by means 
of electric locomotives. 

CANADA 

NIAGARA, ST. CATHERINES & TORONTO RAILWAY 

This was originally a steam road built in 1886 and changed into an 
electrical trolley line in 1899-1900, the first car being run under elec- 
trical operation, July 19, 1900. It extends from Niagara Falls, Ontario, 
to St. Catherines. The road had fallen into the hands of a receiver 
under steam operation and had been sold under the hammer. It has 
sidings to more than 15 industrial plants and has track connection 
with the Michigan Central, thus giving the latter competition with the 
Grand Trunk. 



222 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

In addition to operating an interurban-railway passenger traffic, 
because of its connections to industrial plants, it went into the business 
of freight-handling. Since 1901, owing to the greater volume of busi- 
ness done, the road has been operated at a profit; whereas under steam 
operation it fell into financial difficulty. In 1904, the road was 
acquired by the Canadian Pacific railway. At present, freight is han- 
dled partly by electricity and partly by steam, one electric and one 
steam locomotive being owned. 

HULL ELECTRICAL COMPANY 

This is a former steam road, 26 miles long, between Ottawa Hill and 
Aylmer's Junction, which has been electrified. It is now owned by the 
Canadian Pacific railway. Its rolling-stock comprises 29 cars and 
two electric locomotives. 

LULU ISLAND RAILWAY 

This is a branch of the Canadian Pacific, formerly operated by 
steam. It runs from Vancouver, British Columbia, to Stevetson, 17 
miles. Stevetson is a salmon-canning town. The British Colmnbia 
Electric Railway, an interurban system operating around Vancouver, 
leased the road from the Canadian Pacific in 1905 and electrified it as 
a part of their system. 

The road is single-track and a single-pole bracket trolley construc- 
tion is adopted, a direct-current equipment being used. 

QUEBEC, MONTMORENCY & CHARLEVOIX 

This was a steam road operated between Quebec, St. Anne de Beaupre, 
and St. Joachim, a distance of 30 miles. In 1900, an electrical equip- 
ment was added and an electrical service put on, running between the 
usual steam-railway trains. The results obtained were given in a paper 
read by Mr. E. A. Evans, manager of the Quebec Railway and Light 
Company, before the Canadian Electrical Association on June 12, 1902: 

The electrical equipment cost: 

Electrically bonding existing track $ 5,022 

Overhead trolley, including poles, etc 68,804 

6 large double-truck cars (four 50-horse-power mo- 
tors running 45 miles per hour and seating 54 

passengers) 51,606 

600-kilowatt generator and water wheel, 1 rotary 

transformer, switch-boards, etc 43,430 

Total $168,862 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 223 

An hourly electrical service was put on in addition to steam, with 

the following results : 

1901 Steam 
Increase 1899 Steam and Electric 

Passengers 318,320 253,540 571,374 

Revenue $29,071.39 $44,221.55 $73,292.94 

Extra expenses 5,698.46 

Net $23,372.93 

From Jime 30, 1901, to June 12, 1902, there was a further passenger 
increase of 86,392. 

AUSTRALIA 

In 1903, the conversion of the steam railway between Fluiders Street 
and St. Kildas, Melbourne, was recommended, and the chairman of the 
Railway Commission of Victoria was sent abroad to study electrification. 
These are very busy tracks and are separated from the other railway 
lines. It was stated at the time that without electrification, additional 
rolling-stock and locomotives would have to be built at an early date, 
as the demands of the Melbourne suburban service were taking needed 
rolling-stock from the country. In 1907, Mr. Thomas Tate, chairman 
of the Victorian Railway Commission submitted his report. The lines 
for which electrification is proposed are the two busiest suburban lines 
out of Melbourne. Melbourne has a population of 531,000, a suburban 
railway service of 149 miles with 149 stations. The passengers carried 
yearly are 125,000,000, the average journey being 4% miles. The 
aggregate revenue is $1,333,333. There are about 80 trains per day each 
way over each railway. 

The report states that some gain in traffic and gross revenue may 
be expected, but not a great deal. A belief is expressed that some 
reduction in the cost of working service will ensue with the two busiest 
lines electrified, but as to whether it will offset the capital charges can 
only be seen after investigation. 

A further investigation is now in progress — the scope of the pro- 
posed electrification under study having been extended. 

Note. — While this report is in press the following notice comes to 
hand in the Electric Railway Journal of Sept. 26, 1908: 

Charles H. Merz, consulting engineer of London, who is retained by the 
Victorian government to report on the proposed substitution of electric for 
steam traction on the suburban lines around Melbourne, as stated in the 
Street Railway Journal for Dec. 7, 1907, has rendered his report to Thomas 



224 ELECTPJFICATIOX OF R.ULWAY TEKMNMLS 

Tait, chairman of the \^ctorian Government Railway's. The report states 
that electrification is desirable both for financial reasons and for public 
convenience. The equipment should be carried out in three sections, of 
which the fiirst comprises 29 miles, the second 65 mile? and the third 124 
miles of track. The entire cost would be £2.227. j:! T^ie expenses per 
train mile with electric traction are estimated by Mr. Merz as lid., as 
against 18d. with steam. The total annual expenditure, including 4 per 
cent on the capital investment, would be more with electricity than with 
steam, but it is proposed with electricity to give an improved service, which 
should bring additional revenue. 

Mr. Merz recommends the adoption of the multiple-unit system, with 
an increase of 71 per cent in the train-mileage, but of only 21 per cent in 
the ton-mileage and an increase in speed which would reduce the number 
of cars required. He recommends the employment of 800 volts direct- 
current, with a protected third rail and three-phase power distribution. 

CUBA 

The Havana Central was organized in 1905, to take over the rights 
of the Insular Raib-oad Company and to btdld an electric raib-oad Hne. 
While building an electrical railroad outright, it succeeded to the fran- 
chises of what was designed to be a steam road. The franchise covered 
the only practical railroad entrance into the harbor of Havana and the 
business section of the city, together with extensions to various neigh- 
boring suburban towns. A line is being constructed for general service, 
carrying all kinds of freight and providing a frequent passenger ser- 
vice. There wiU be 125 miles of trackage. From Havana, one branch 
runs southeast through Cuatro Caminos, Lomas de Candela, Guiaes, 
and Providencia to Rosario, 40 miles distant. 

A second line runs from Havana to Bejucal. 17 miles distant. 

A third runs from Havana to Mariel. 37 miles distant. 

Another north and south line runs to El Carmelo. Santiago de las 
Vegas, and Tuira de Malena 30 miles distant. 

The central power-plant wiU be located at Havana where power will 
be generated at 19,000 volts and transmitted to 8 sub-stations, from 
which 600-volt direct current wiU be supplied to the trolley wires. The 
main power-station is of 5,000-kilowatt capacity. 

In addition to 24 motor passenger coaches, the road has purchased 
10 electric freight locomotives each with 4 motors geared for 17 idles 
per hour and capable of hauling a 300-ton-weight train at this ^ ^v 1. 
Freight will be handled in standard-box, gondola, and flat car- Ii. 
addition, a fast freight and express service in motor coaches will oc put 
on. 



EXISTENT INSTALLATIONS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 225 

CONCLUSION 

In addition to the electrification of steam roads and the construction 
of electric roads to operate under steam-road conditions, there have 
been steam street-car systems and dummy lines electrified in almost 
every foreign country, as has been done in the United States. This is 
true of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and most of the countries 
in Europe; certain similar lines in Brazil, the Argentine, and Chile have 
been turned into electric roads. Similar conversion has been made of 
a steam road out of Tunis. In 1906, the conversion of a steam line 
between Pirseus and Athens, 25 miles long, into an electric line was 
undertaken. The short steam line from Manila to Malabon was electri- 
fied along with the electrical equipment of street-car lines in Manila. 
The Alexandria and Ramleh road, a steam road built in 1866, running 
from Alexandria, in Egypt, to Ramleh and Aboukir, was consolidated 
with the Alexandria Tramway Company and the line transformed into 
a direct-c\u*rent trolley system. 

In view of the advanced state of the art reached in major applications 
of electrical traction, these roads are, of course, of no interest, except 
that they show that the European developments are along similar lines 
to American ones. ' 

Our object in covering the existent electrifications in such scope has 
been to show the wide application which has been made of the art. 
From certain quarters, objection to applying electrification to the ( hi- 
cago roads has been made on the score that there are physical features 
of the Chicago situation which prevent the application of electrical trac- 
tion to the Chicago roads, and that electrification is as yet an undevel- 
oped art. We believe that a consideration of the numerous electrifi- 
actions which have already been carried out will inevitably lead to the 
conclusion that any physical condition existent in Chicago can be readily 
met by the application of devices already in use, and that electrification 
has passed beyond the experimental stage. Experiments are in 
progress to determine the relative merits of certain types of electrical 
apparatus and continual experimentation is being made to better 
existent types, — but experimentation along similar lines is being made 
with almost every type of apparatus used in steam-railroad operation. 
As a matter of fact, it is the history of transportation that no transpor- 
tation equipment ceases to be experimented upon in an attempt to make 
it more efficient, until such apparatus becomes obsolete and there is no 
need for experimentation looking toward its betterment. In our belief, 



226 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

it is almost as justifiable to speak of the experiment of using cross- ties 
for railroads because experiments are made from time to time to deter- 
mine the relative serviceabihty of steel, concrete, untreated-wood or 
treated-wood cross-ties, as to speak of the experiment of electrical trac- 
tion because of the controversy as to the relative merits of direct-current 
and alternating-current apparatus demanding certaia observations under 
operation to determine which may be the better of the two for a given 
installation. 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 

H. H. EVANS 

The handling of freight cars presents one of the largest problems 
in the electrification of the Chicago terminals. Nowhere has the elec- 
trical handling of freight trains reached the volume that it would reach 
on any of the Chicago terminals, were all the freight therein handled by 
electricity. In general, electrifications have had to do with terminals 
into which not a great deal of freight is handled, or else with stretches 
of track between points at which little freight originates. 

The most economically handled tonnage with steam operation is that 
of freight, which can be held until it accumulates sufficiently to afford 
long and heavy trains, and which can be despatched regardless of 
schedule, in order to handle it at the most convenient time. Due to 
hauling heavy train loads over long distances with few stops, the power 
consimiption with a freight train and, consequently, the coal consump- 
tion, is reduced to the lowest possible point. In addition, the heavy 
weights handled make possible the application of very large and heavy 
locomotives in which a good many of the space limitations of smaller 
locomotives are absent, and in consequence of the larger size and of 
the slow speed at which they are worked, these locomotives may be 
chosen of a more economical type than is available for passenger train 
operation. Working up to speed puts much the largest power demand 
on the locomotive in train operation, and by nmning the trains over an 
entire division without stops, it is possible to cut the increment of accel- 
eration above ordinary running resistance to a minimimi. Heavy trains, 
in addition, are economical because the head resistance becomes a 
proportionately smaller part of the total resistance of the train as the 
length increases, because the power expended for hauling dead weight 
of the locomotive is also spread over a wider surface, and because 
less train labor is required per ton for a heavy train than a light train. 
For this reason and for the reason that a change in motive power would 
be required at each end, electric propulsion of freight trains has not 
been adopted on electrified stretches of track such as that of the West 
Shore. 

For tunnel electrifications, where heavy grades interfere with loco- 
motive capacity, it has been adopted to advantage. Even on straight, 

227 



228 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

level stretches of track with heavy tram loads it has been repeatedly 
mathematically demonstrated that some saving in operating expenses 
would ensue from electrification, but the savings from the apphcation 
of electrification to other classes of traffic have been much more attract- 
ive to railway officials, that the capital which has been put into elec- 
trification has concerned itself principally with the handling of passenger 
trains. 

With the exception of most of the English electrifications and that 
of the Paris-Orleans electrification in France, virtually all of the foreign 
electrifications have provided for the handling of freight as well as pas- 
senger trafl^c. Of course, the handling of freight in Eiu'opean countries 
is very different from that in the United States. It is of nowhere near 
the volume, and there is nothing hke the average distance hauled. In 
Europe, freight is preferably handled by water, and the principal freight 
traffic on the railroads is taking this freight to the very nearest seaport. 
The interior traffic is largely local and shipped in small quantities. 
Car capacities are small so that small train loads are hauled and there 
are necessarily more frequent stops, both of these factors making it 
more favorable for the application of electrical traction. 

The freight handling into Chicago, however, is not a handhng 
of heavy trains over level track at constant speeds without stops 
between division points 100 miles apart. It departs very widely 
from this condition, and between hauling the heavy trains along the 
main line without stops and the character of the service encountered 
in the case of the European freight trains, we should say that the traffic 
would more closely approach the latter than the former. The terminal 
freight handling in Chicago is much nearer a switching service than 
a road service. 

As a usual thing the heavy trains stop at yards in the outskirts of 
the city, where the train is either broken up into smaller \mits, or a yard 
engine hitches to it and brings it into the downtown terminal. There 
are occasional stops and a good deal of slowing down when passing 
over crossings, through yards or passenger terminals, and over cross 
overs, past sidings, and other special track work. Instead of a smooth 
application of power, we have almost continual accelerations. In ad- 
dition, most terminal entries are used by several classes of trains, the 
passenger trains, of course, taking precedence over all the freights, 
and the second-class freights over the third-class. It often happens 
that a train comes to a contracted portion of the right of way and, be- 
cause a passenger train is due within 15 or 20 minutes, the freight 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 229 

train stops on the siding and waits for the passenger. Arrived at the 
yards, the further movement of the freight is, of course, pm-ely switch- 
ing, when there is much dead time and a great diversity of load. 

It is almost impossible to get accurate figures as to the cost of opera- 
tion of freight trains on terminals, but we believe that it will be generally 
admitted that the expense per ton-mile of handling freight into terminals 
will largely exceed the average receipts per ton-mile for freight over the 
entire division delivering freight into the terminal. This is the justi- 
fication for switching charges, — usually three or four dollars (depending 
upon the point) being charged for handling a car from one terminal to 
another within a city: this amount, of course, being very much in excess 
of the amount which would be paid if the usual tariff of five or six mills 
per ton-mile were paid on the contents of the car. In addition, a great 
many of the freight trains which come over the terminal tracks to the 
downtown yards are light trains, and it is axiomatic that freight, to be 
handled profitably, must be handled in heavy train loads; consequently, 
these Ught trains are probably handled at a loss. The terminal switch- 
ing occupies a large part of the freight-train movement. Cars are brought 
down to the incoming and outgoing freight yards and have to be accu- 
rately spotted for loading or unloading purposes, and upon being taken 
out of the yards, a good deal of shifting back and forth is necessary to 
make up the train. It is not simply a question of shoving the cars 
together until they couple and then hauling them out. A freight train 
must be coaxed and wheedled in getting it together and there is usually 
more or less trouble getting started. A large part of this is due to the 
construction of a steam locomotive. The locomotive gets on center and, 
instead of the cars being pushed ahead, the locomotive backs off center 
to make another try, and this sort of thing keeps up throughout the 
whole performance. In making up a train, if the locomotive keep up 
speed enough to keep from sticking on dead points, there is danger of 
bringing the cars together with such force as to damage them. 

Now, electrical operation would very materially improve these points. 
With an electric locomotive there is no such thing as getting on center. 
Acceleration is both more rapid and more economical. When the loco- 
motive stops on a siding, the power consumption stops. In spotting 
cars, the locomotive can be kept in motion until the car is within an inch 
of where it belongs and one movement suffices instead of several. The 
electric locomotive, by its easy motion, can gradually bunt the cars up 
the track and couple together an entire train ready for hauling out, 
without damage to the draft-rigging. The electrical locomotive will not 



230 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

be compelled to go down the track at intervals for coal or water. Owing 
to better acceleration and more flexible control, together with ability to 
dispense with a good deal of the standby time and dead movement, an 
electric locomotive will be capable of giving a greater mileage per day in 
switching or transfer service than a steam locomotive. The electric 
locomotives can be worked continuously for long hours, while the steam 
laco motive must be sent to the round-house once in so often for cleanino;. 
With electrical operation, the small transfer freight of say half the ton- 
nage considered desirable for through operation, can be handled at ap- 
proximately half of the power consumption, — whereas, at present, with 
steam, it would entail almost as large a coal consumption as a train of 
double the weight. Transfer freights are in many cases small because, 
in order to get the trains to transfer points on time, it is necessary to 
take over what cars are on hand, rather than what tonnage is desired. 
With electrical operation, a much more intensive working of freight 
terminals would be possible. 

If it affords us a system which will enable us to haul between the 
downtown terminals and the transfer or make-up yards, fractional trains 
at fractional power-expenditures, it will enable cars to be shifted back 
and forth at the downtown terminals and taken into or out of these 
places as fast as they are loaded or unloaded. This, in a great many 
cases, will mean practically an entire day saved in the use of a car, for it 
often happens that a car is almost loaded when the cars are taken out of 
the yards to be made up into out-going trains and has to be left until the 
next day. Now, if short trains can be despatched to the out-lying yards 
at frequent intervals, such a car could be taken out to the yard that same 
afternoon, perhaps, and could find its place in an out-going train. The 
dehvery or collection of cars from an industrial plant forms a serious 
problem in freight-handling. Now, the initial or final haul of such a car 
is at a loss. To collect such cars, even in a heavy industrial section, the 
steam locomotive collects the cars by twos and threes and finally gets no 
more than a full train load — as a rule, much less than a full train load 
is collected. Even with a full train load, the mean load hauled in such 
an operation, which will often be over a longer mileage than the one to 
the yard, is only half the train load, with its consequent inefficient ex- 
penditure of coal. The largest economies of electrical operation arise 
when there is the greatest amount of starting and stopping and the 
greatest variabihty of load, — which are identically the conditions under 
which this traffic is handled. 

It may be said that the application of electrical working to such tracks 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 231 

or to switch tracks or freight yards, will mean an outlay which will entail 
larger carrying charges than the sa"\dngs will offset. This is a matter 
for demonstration. Per train mile, the savings under electrical operation 
of freight terminals will be fully as much and perhaps more than the 
saving to be effected with the electrical handling of passenger traffic. 
The daily train mileage per mile of track and sidings reserved for freight 
traffic and storage, will, however, be less than under passenger traffic. 
On the other hand, the expenditure for electrical equipment per mile of 
trackage will be very much less for electrical handling of freight in addi- 
tion to passenger traffic than for the electrical handling of passenger 
traffic alone. Freight trains move slowly and there is not the necessity 
for the rigid construction of contact line for freight yards and sidings, 
supplied to the main line over which passenger trains move at high 
speeds. The main-line tracks reserved for the movement of freight 
trains and the distributing tracks for freight yards demand fully as good 
construction as the passenger tracks. Over the other tracks the trains 
do not move at very high speeds and over few of them is it necessary to 
take off extraordinarily large currents. Consequently, the bulk of the 
freight trackage can be electrified by adopting an overhead trolley con- 
struction. A portion of the rest can be electrified by using a light third 
rail, in the case of direct-current work, or a single-suspension catenary 
construction from cross catenary wires, in the case of alternating-cur- 
rent work. For industrial sidings and other hghtly used tracks, a very 
cheap form of construction can be adopted. It is probable even, in some 
cases, that poles may be dispensed with, the span-wires being made fast 
to anchors in the buildings on each side of the track, as has been done with 
certain street-railway lines. A freight yard electrified with overhead 
trolley construction would not even cost as much as street-railway span 
construction, for instead of a pair of poles spanning two tracks, as in the 
latter case, we could span some half dozen tracks with a pair of poles, 
hanging the span- wire from a messenger cable. The freight yards are 
usually of but a few blocks' length, so that feeders would be unnecessary, 
the overhead work being electrically tied in to the rails on the main 
track which passes near. Thus it would be found that the contact-line 
equipment for the electrification of freight terminals would only cost per 
mile, between one-half and one-third that of the installation on the main- 
line trackage. In addition, the amount chargeable per mile of electrified 
track for investment in power-station and transmission lines would be 
much less than that chargeable to the initial electrification of passenger 
trackage. 



232 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

The heavy freight-train movement in and out of the terminal comes 
usually in the late evening and the early morning hours when the power- 
house provided for passenger operation would have little load upon it. 
The only additional peak-load required to be taken care of at the power- 
house would be the operation of perhaps one or two trains and of the 
engines occupied in spotting or switching in the yards simultaneously 
with the peak of the suburban traffic. This additional peak load would 
be less in amount than the average power-requirement for freight move- 
ment during the 24 hours. 

It has been rather well demonstrated that freight can be handled 
profitably by electricity. Mathematically, it should be handled more 
profitably than at present. The practical demonstration of its more 
economical handling simply awaits demonstration on a large scale. That 
it can be handled profitably by electricity, is demonstrated not alone by 
the experience of European roads, but by the experience of a number 
of electrical street or interurban railways in this country. 

In our investigation we have found considerably over 100 such roads 
handling freight. With some of them the freight is being handled in 
very small lots, but a fair proportion is being handled in car-load lots and 
with a few a certain quantity of freight is being handled in standard 
railway cars, in car-load lots, in trains of 15 to 30 cars. The handling of 
freight by such railroads has been going on for several years and is on 
the increase. It has been claimed in certain quarters that these roads 
are handlmg this freight at a loss, but, if such is the case, why do they 
persist in their practice? 

The entrance of the interm'ban road into freight business has been 
very bitterly fought by steam railroads. In many cases the steam roads 
have refused to enter into traffic agreements with such roads or to make 
use of their equipment. The question arises, if freight-hauUng by elec- 
tricity by these roads is unprofitable why do the steam roads fight them 
so hard? The better policy to us would seem to be to dehver so much 
freight to these railroads that they would be put to such a great loss as 
to throw them into the hands of a receiver, and remove the competition. 

There are very few steam railroads that could make money hand- 
ling freight if they were not allowed to load freight cars for points off 
their line and to receive loaded cars from other fines. That electric 
lines have made money when steam railroads have refused them 
interchanges, indicates an unusual co-efficient of economy in handling 
freight by electricity. 

There has been considerable activity in electric freight-handling 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 233 

around Toledo and Cincinnati and a good deal of it on the Pacific coast. 
On the Pacific coast, conditions are of course favorable, because water 
power is available in many instances for the generation of comparatively 
cheap power and coal is very high; so that a smaller electrical mileage 
per mile of track will produce sufficient sa\ing to offset capital charges 
than in the East, because of the coal saving aggregating more. These 
railroads, also, usually have a large mileage with consequent large power 
demand, so that the hauling of freight trains does not produce too large 
increments upon power-house loads. It is this factor which has de- 
terred a great many interurban railway systems from going into the 
freight business. In a good many cases it happens that the amount of 
freight which they can obtain is relatively small and would not justify 
the investment necessary to handle it. Thus in the case of the Water- 
loo, Cedar Falls & Northern railway, a road first operated by steam 
then entirely by electricity, it was found that in order to take care of an 
adequate freight business, it would be necessary to put on much heavier 
locomotives. This would mean an increased capacity of power-stations 
and overhead lines, the added investment to be used only one or two 
days a week. The returns therefrom could not be expected to pay 
capital charges, so, rather than incur the additional expenditure, the road 
took to hauling its freight by steam. With the large freight tonnage 
handled and almost continuous load pecuHar to a standard steam ter- 
minal, this objection to electric freight-handling would, of course, dis- 
appear. Mr. J. D. Hawks, president of the Detroit, Ypsilanti, Ann 
Arbor & Jackson Railway, sums up the objections to freight-handling 
on electric lines as follows: 

1. The existence of heavy grades on electric roads. 

2. The inabihty to handle heavy enough weights to compete with 
steam roads. 

3. Power-house capacity sufficient to handle an occasional heavy 
train would entail too heavy a fixed charge. 

These objections, of coiirse, would not hold against the electrical 
handling of freight on the Chicago terminals. There are no heavy 
grades; electrical locomotives for terminal service on standard rail- 
roads can be, and have been, built of a larger capacity than steam loco- 
motives; and the power-house capacity would already be there to handle 
the heavy trains which woiild be frequent and not occasional. A num- 
ber of electric railroads handling freight, which first handled their 
freight traffic with steam locomotives, have subsequently added electric 
locomotives to their equipment for handling this traffic. Mr. N. S. 



234 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Cooper, in an article in the Street Railway Journal of February 14, 1903, 
based on 129 replies to letters addressed to electric railway companies 
handling freight, says: ' 'Almost without exception the business is not 
only a very remunerative part of their operating, but it grows in vol- 
ume and scope in a way that leaves the purely passenger business far 
behind." 

The Lackawanna and Wyoming Valley, a third-rail road in com- 
petition with steam roads, first hauled its freight with a steam loco- 
motive, but subsequently replaced it with an electric one. 

The Cincinnati, Georgetown and Portsmouth replaced its steam 
locomotives mth electric ones for handling freight. 

The Philadelphia and Reading, in 1904, bought an electric loco- 
motive for use in freight handling on its Cape ^lay, Delaware Bay, and 
Sewall's Point Railway branch, this branch being a 7-mile, electrically 
operated one extending from Cape May to Sewall's Point, and formerly 
operated merely for passenger ser\dce. 

The Oregon Water Power and Portland Railway Company of Port- 
land, Ore., handles its freight with electrical locomotives, keeping its 
three steam locomotives bought for construction purposes on hand as a 
reserve. 

There are a number of electric roads hauling as much freight as 
small steam lines of equivalent length between terminals. Thus, the 
Niagara, Buffalo and Lockport line of the International Railway Com- 
pany handles 20 to 30 loaded standard cars of freight per day between 
Buffalo and Lockport. 

The Niagara, St. Cathermes and Toronto Railway had a gross an- 
nual freight earning prior to 1900 (under steam operation) of less than 
S20,000, and in the year ending August, 1903, operated by electricity, 
was able to show a freight hauling 120% greater than in 1900, and an 
operating percentage of 52, as against a former loss. 

Mr. E. F. Seixas, in an article in the Street Railway Journal, October 
19, 1903, says : ' 'With us it is found 'also that switching service is a 
source of revenue, which if facihties are available, is remunerative." 

The Spokane and Inland Empire Company has its freight and pas- 
senger business about equally balanced, and so partakes of the charac- 
ter of a standard railroad. This road has a freight yard in Spokane 
300 by 2,000 feet with connections to the standard steam railroad 
tracks, and interchange agreements with them. The road has a route 
length of over 100 miles. It goes through a good agricultural country 
and handles the freight originating therein. It has over 300 standard 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 235 

freight cars of its own and possesses 14 electric locomotives of 500 to 
700 horse-power capacity. It handles any traffic offered and compares 
favorably with steam roads of equal length between terminals. In 1907, 
the road hauled a 23-car circus train over its line, made up of 5 60- 
ton Pullmans, 7 standard stock cars, and 11 standard flats, aggregating 
2,300 tons. 

The Oregon Water Power and Railway Company of Portland, Ore., 
with lines from Portland to Oregon City, 15 miles, and from Portland 
to Cazadero, 38 miles, and with 67 miles of single trackage, was espec- 
ially built for handling freight in carload lots. The freight traffic has 
been systematically developed imtil it now forms the major part of the 
business of the Company, and it is stated that its freight traffic proba- 
bly exceeds in amoimt that of any steam railroad of equal length in the 
west. The Company delivers the freight originated on its lines in car- 
load lots to the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company and to the 
Oregon Short Line. It has a large freight terminal yard in East 
Portland handling over 400 cars of freight. It was built to haul logs to 
the mills. The first summer it was in operation it hauled over 100,000 
cords of wood (16 cords to the carload), and also hauled about 10 car- 
loads of crushed stone a day. 

The Seattle and Tacoma Electric Railway, with 36 miles between 
terminals, hauls freight in carload lots in 275-ton trains with electric 
locomotives. 

The Toledo and Western, with 60 miles of main line and a 22 mile 
branch of road built through imdeveloped territory lying between two 
parallel branches of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway, 
20 to 25 miles apart, handles the freight peculiar to its territory and 
its freight business has had a big development. In 1905, it secured a 
50 mile haul of 600 carloads of construction material to one plant. This 
road has interchange agreements with steam roads and hauls a good 
deal of live stock and grain. Trains are handled with electric loco- 
motives. The Toledo and Western is said to be having difficulty in 
handling all the freight that is offered it. 

The East St. Louis and Bellville has two electric locomotives with 
which it hauls a good deal of coal originating in the mines along its route 
to East St. Louis. These locomotives haul about 25 loaded coal cars. 
One line is used entirely for freight service, paralleling a double track 
passenger line. 

Between Edgemont and Lebanon a steam locomotive is used for 
hauling freight, as it is not considered advisable to invest sufficient 



236 ELECTRIFICATIOX OF RAILWAY TERfflNALS 

money in feeders to handle the freight business of this section electrically^ 
This road is now a part of the Illinois Traction Company (controlled by 
the McKinley interests), which is systematically developing its freight 
traffic. It has a mileage of over 400 miles, operates partly under al- 
ternating cmTent and partly under direct current. It owns a number 
of electric locomotives for handling freight and in certain sections han-^ 
dies freight m carload lots. The freight development has hitherto 
been held back by difficulty in obtaining permission to operate freight 
trains through the streets of the cities through which the system passes. 
Belt lines have now been built around some of these cities, notably 
Springfield and Decatur. The road owns 350 freight cars at present 
and 15 locomotives, and last year handled over 150,000 tons of coal in 
carload lots. 

The Denver and Northwestern hauls coal from the coal mines at 
Leyden, Colorado, to Denver. 

The Petaluma and Santa Rosa road was built primarily to handle 
freight and express. 

On account of the hea\y growth of its freight business a change of 
gauge of the Puget Sound Electric Company's Tacoma lines became 
necessary'. The Company not only developed a lumber, cord wood^ 
and coal trade, but it put iato operation a refrigerator line out in Tacoma. 

The Toledo and Indiana, from Toledo to Br}^an, 55 3^ miles, 
(ultimately, Toledo to Fort Wayne) handles freight in carload lots 
with an electric locomotive. It parallels the Lake Shore and Mich- 
igan Southern, and gets local freight which might otherwise go to that 
road because it leaves freight at the door of the receiver. 

The Atlantic Shore line in Maine handles freight in carload lots with 
electric locomotives. 

The Des Moines and Interurban Railway has a sort of belt line in 
Des Moiaes, and handles freight in standard railroad cars with electric 
locomotives. The line has freight agreements with the Chicago and 
Great Western, the Iowa Central, and the Minneapolis and St. Louis. 
The line nms through a sparsely populated country and consists of four 
radial branches from 6 to 23 miles long. It has a line between Klon- 
dike Junction and Fhnt VaUey operated entirely for freight. It hauls 
a good deal of stock in standard cars dehvering them to steam roads 
for shipment to Chicago. Five mines on the road each ship five cars 
daily over the Interurban, and it draws additional traffic from brick 
yards, manufacturing plants, farms, etc. The road's freight business is 
what makes the road pay. 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 237 

Some of these roads are in competition with steam roads and 
because of their abiUty to despatch freight as soon as received, are gain- 
ing a larger and larger share of the local business. It is probable that 
freight handhng by such Hues will receive a larger growth in the future, 
and that a considerable portion of the strictly local business will be 
handled by electricity, just as the electric roads have skimmed the 
cream of the local passenger traffic. That the thing pays is evidenced 
by the continuance of these roads in the business of freight handling. 
In addition, there is considerable testimony to the effect that it is re- 
munerative. Thus Frederick S. Pratt, of the Executive Committee of 
Stone & Webster in the Boston and Providence hearing before the 
Legislative Committee on Street Railways of Massachusetts (inciden- 
tal to a comprehensive discussion of interurban railways), stated that 
the Puget Sound line between Seattle and Tacoma was operated at a 
loss until it began to carry freight. Published statements of the opera- 
tion of the Toledo and Indiana, show a net profit of about 3 cents per 
car mile on freight handling. It is stated that the freight business of 
the Des Moines Interurban is responsible for the road paying. A state- 
ment in the press that the Maumee Valley Railway and Light Company 
had given up handling freight as it was unprofitable at steam railway 
rates, was denied in a letter given out by Mr. L. E. Beilstern, General 
Manager of the road, in which he stated that they were ^ 'still doing 
freight business and expected to contmue to do so." 

To an inquiry made by Mr. J. B. McClary, 45 electric roads reported 
that the freight business was profitable, 9 were doubtful, 10 were non- 
committal, and only 2 reported it improfitable. 

Regarding the Toledo and Western, Mr. G. F. Franklin, general 
manager of the road, gave out a statement in 1905 that the road could 
not live through passenger service alone. Mr. Franklin was at one 
time General Superintendent of the Clover Leaf Route. As he is thus 
famihar with both steam and electrical operation, we are inclined to 
believe that freight handling is considered cheaper by electricity on 
the Toledo and Western than by steam — else it would hardly be per- 
sisted in. 

We have already touched upon the reasons why freight handling was 
not included in the two large New York electrifications, — namely, 
that both enter a terminal, into which no freight goes. 

Their freight Unes will probably be changed in the near future to a 
different route from that followed at present and worked electrically. 
Confirmatory to our remarks regarding the connection of the New 



238 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Haven with the Pennsylvania, there was pubUshed just prior to the 
New Haven's electrification an estimate of electrically equipping the 
Willis Avenue line of the New Haven road and of connecting it across 
Ward's and Randall's Islands with the Pennsylvania Railroad at Long 
Island City. The building of the New York Central's freight subway on 
11th and 12th avenues with a line across 52d Street to connect with 
the Grand Central Station was broached by their chief Engineer, 
George F. Rice, to the New^ York Traffic Commission, on November 15, 
1906. The electric handling of freight by these lines is contemplated, 
and, we believe, will be consummated in the not distant future. 

The objections which we hear to electric traction for freight work 
are as follows: 

1. That it is in the experimental stage; its feasibility has not been 
proven. 

2. That electricity will clutter up the freight yards. 

3. That it will increase the dangers of yards. 

4. That it will prove expensive in operation — more expensive than 
steam locomotive switching and hauling. 

Let us consider these points seriatim. 

1. In our judgment this has been the greatest deterrent to electrifi- 
cation. For the last decade, roads have had estimates made on elec- 
trification and opinions have been vouchsafed by experts that freight- 
handling would pay. There has been discussion as to who should bear 
the cost of experimentation and stand the losses which always ensue, — 
since experimentation can never be put on a basis of practical production* 
Some experimentation will be a necessity, principally to develop the 
best type of electrical switching locomotives. The present type of 
steam locomotive represents evolution. Such questions as the diameter 
of drivers, the use of leading or trailing trucks, the building of engines 
with high or low centers of gravity, the employment of compound ot 
simple engines, and with compound engines, whether the cylinders shall 
be tandem or yoke connected, and numberless other points have all had 
to be threshed out. There will be less experimentation with the types 
of electric switching engines and with other types of electrical equipment 
than in the case of steam locomotives, for the following reasons : (a) A 
large number of points involved concern trucks and frames and other 
parts which can be adapted from steam-locomotive practice, with all the 
knowledge of past experience as a guide. (&) Electricity is nearly a 
mathematical science. The electrical engineer can figure results to an 
imusual degree of acciu'acy. Thus, in the case of the New York subway ^ 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 239 

Mr. Stillwell's estimates of the required power-input for different classes 
of trains came within 3% of the test performance, (c) The electrical 
switching and electrical freight industry is not in its infancy. Mines, 
industrial plants, belt Hues, traction systems, and European electrifi- 
cations have been switching and hauling freight for years. Yards of 
sufficient size to have passed beyond simphcity and switching freight 
trackage many miles in extent, have long been in operation. The 
freight problem has ample precedent except in volume; and volume 
fiu-nishes no problems that are pecuhar. The passenger-traffic types 
of locomotives require but few modifications to insure a high-efficiency 
electric locomotive for terminal service. The large electric houses are 
prepared now to furnish a type guaranteed to give efficiency in meeting 
the problems outlined to them. The controversy between direct 
current of low voltage and an alternating current of high voltage is 
impossible of solution now, but as each is proving satisfactory, this is 
not an insurmoimtable objection. The present electric locomotives em- 
ployed in the New York terminal electrifications are economic haulers 
of large units. That phase is proven. When it comes to the small 
units, economical tractors are proven to the smallest detail. To our 
mind, since the larger proportion of train movements over the terminal 
tracks are of small trains, it would be advisable to adopt the policy of 
handling the bulk of the traffic with small trains. For this, a smaller- 
size locomotive could be provided and the rheostatic losses kept down. 
(We are speaking of direct-current equipment in his argimient, simply 
because it is the canonical equipment.) For handling heavy trains, 
these locomotives could be double-headed. The locomotives will 
preferably be of geared type or built with large, slow-moving motors. 
An extension of the present multiple, series-parallel control would 
probably be deemed advisable so that the 16 motors on a double-headed 
unit could be connected in the various variations from 8 motors in 
series to 8 motors in parallel. It has been found on the New York 
Central that the switching locomotives must be fitted with additional 
rheostats and it would be preferable to obtain the resistance within 
additional motors, rather than by dissipating energy. Most of the 
problems of electric traction for freight and of switching have been 
demonstrated by years of use. Local adaptation will be controlled by a 
science that is more accurate than steam economics or almost anything 
else. As further arguments, we refer to the experiences cited elsewhere, 
the opinions expressed, and such declared intentions as to future 
developments as we have discovered in our investigations, — some of 
which we are not privileged to relate. 



240 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

2. As to the objection on the grounds that the freight yard would 
be cluttered up, — in the Grand Trunk yards at Port Huron, the New 
Haven yards, the storage yards of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company, 
or the yards at the entrance of the Simplon Tunnel, we get an idea as 
to what this will amount to. The overhead construction is not particu- 
larly complicated and the only additional incumbrance added to the 
yards are posts spanning from four to a dozen tracks. There is sufficient 
clearance in the yards everywhere for the erection of these posts, as 
only the end posts require stay- wires; the intermediate posts being no 
thicker than a man's body, and a clearance being allowed between 
freight tracks for two trains to pass with sufficient room between for a 
man to stand. Freight terminal yards have no more complicated 
trackage lay-outs than the lay-outs at the ends of the passenger stations 
where a number of tracks converge to two or four tracks. Existent 
passenger electrifications cover track work which has just as complicated 
features as can be found in any part of Chicago, and both the third-rail 
and the overhead construction have been applied in such electrifications. 
The Port Huron yard is a storage yard from 2 to 10 tracks wide and 2 
miles long. They have not found the overhead work objectionable or 
dangerous. 

3. The dangers from electrified yards. Yards are not for tres- 
passers and anything which will increase the fear of a yard will 
decrease its dangers. The New York Central yards have been very free 
from accidents. The other freight yards do not report any unusual 
accidents from current. Industrial yards with electric traction, have 
no high accident rates. We have already touched upon this question 
toward the end of the chapter upon the general aspects of electrification, 
wherein some statistical matter is incorporated. The current voltage 
of street-car lines of such suburbans as the Aurora, Elgin & Chicago, 
the Lake Street Elevated, the Northwestern Elevated,— all of which 
have storage yards of size, is equal to the probable voltage which 
would be adopted for the electrification of Chicago terminals, yet their 
accident rates are certainly not prohibitive. 

4. It is just in switching that we think electric traction would show 
the greatest saving over steam traction. The load is very uneven; 
electric traction is more adjustable than steam traction. The steam 
locomotive is idle so much of the time and carries full steam all of such 
time. Here electricity saves. The steam locomotive does not run with 
equal efficiency in both directions; the electric does. The locomo- 
tive runs farther in making a switch; the crew is larger than an elec- 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 241 

trie crew — when the engine is idle, the crew is idle. With electricity, 
cars can be spotted more accurately and in much less time. There is 
no such thing as getting on center. The upkeep is less, round-house 
charges are less, cleaning is less. It can work longer hours. There 
is no loss going for coal or water, or other dead runs. Control is 
better. Acceleration is both more rapid and more economical. The 
cost of a switching mile is in excess of that of a straight-away mile 
and the coefficient of inefficiency of switching service is exceedingly 
high. Much of the waste is in switching and the returns from these 
economies should be productive in proportion to the importance of 
the service. 

The most considerable objection to electric handling of freight is its 
volume. To those who are accustomed to the power-requirements of the 
large urban street-car systems, or electric-lighting requirements, the 
power required by an electrified terminal in Chicago seems insignificant. 
Switching included, it is probable that the maximum momentary 
requirement on the lUinois Central for its entire service would not 
exceed 15,000 kilowatts, or a rated power-house capacity of 10,000 kilo- 
watts. The New York Central installation in two power-plants designed 
for passenger and freight traffic and probably for the New Haven load, 
is 40,000 kilowatts. The Twin Cities plant for street-railway service in 
St. Paul and Minneapolis is 35,000 kilowatts. The Interborough Rapid 
Transit Company of New York has an installation of approximately 
140,000 kilowatts. The South Side Elevated has 14,000 kilowatts. 

The new power-plant at the Gary Steel Works will have 34,000 
kilowatts. The smallness of 10,000 kilowatts is apparent when we 
consider that the larger-sized turbines, of which a number may be 
located in one station, are now built in sizes of 7,500 kilowatts. 

We have suggested that a special type of switching locomotive be 
provided for the service. For through hauling of heavy trains, the 
electric locomotives used for the passenger trains will of co\u*se be avail- 
able and the adoption of electrical hauling for such service would give 
them an opportunity of returning a greater mileage per day and would 
probably lead to an easier care of rolling-stock demands and a lessened 
dead mileage. Should electrification be adopted, it is probable that 
for several years provision will have to be made for a few smokeless 
locomotives to make side trips, for instance, with stock trains to the 
Stock Yards. These, of course, may be anthracite or coke burners. 
Prudence would demand that the work and wreck trains be hauled by 
a steam locomotive. The incoming and outgoing steam locomotives 



242 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

for attachment to trains at the end of the electrification could be util- 
ized as stand-by locomotives for this service. 

There are two extremely attractive by-products of electrification. 
The first of these is local deUvery of parcels and packages over existent 
steam lines. A considerable problem is before the large merchants of 
this city as to how they shall handle their deliveries to out-lying dis- 
tricts. Distances are becoming so great that it is becoming uneconom- 
ical and largely impossible to handle dehveries from the center of the 
city. Automobile delivery has been resorted to, but it has not proven 
altogether satisfactory. The practice has grown of building barns in 
outlying sections to supply a district contiguous thereto and dehveries 
from that section are teamed out or sent out in automobiles, there to be 
distributed by wagons which ply locally. With the economical use of 
small trains hauled by hght electric locomotives, it would be possible 
for the railroads to carry such business at a profit for the merchants and 
with the instant availabihty of electrical service, such trains could prob- 
ably be despatched a couple of times a day. The traffic would thus be 
handled, in the case of the Illinois Central, by putting small sidings at 
intervals of, let us say, two miles, and at their suburban stations where 
the station agent can look out for them. A light package delivery 
train could leave the downtown terminal in the early morning and at 
noon, let us say, with a car destined for each siding. The train could 
drop the cars off at the sidings as it proceeded down the line and collect 
them on its way back. The merchants would have their distributing 
wagons meet these cars, load from them and distribute the packages 
to the district adjacent to the station. 

The second, and a very important item, is the opportunity of 
securing larger returns from existent freight-houses. Owing to the tax 
of freight-handling, these at present are almost uniformly one-story 
buildings. The material which is handled in them and which is stored 
in them is handled by the railroad at a poor return on its investment. 
In general, in the city of Chicago, in the downtown districts, taxes and 
other fixed charges on property are so high that the one-story building 
will not bring a sufficient return to more than offset them. If it has 
been true everywhere else, why should it not be economy for the rail- 
roads to build multi-story buildings in place of these one-story freight - 
houses and secure an adequate return from the ground occupied? 

What we have in mind is the utilization of these freight-houses as 
storage warehouses. It is poor economy to handle them as they are at 
present handled. Goods are brought into a congested freight-house 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 243 

around which the wagons block each other's way and a long time is 
taken in loading and unloading. They are teamed across town to some 
warehouse where they are left until sold, — then teamed back and 
shipped out to the customer. As the population of the city increases, 
the cost of teaming grows, and as the extent of teaming grows, the 
cost to the Chicago tax-payer grows in turn. The large jobbers pay 
a considerable proportion of the downtown taxes, so their present 
handling of stock costs them an outlay both in money spent for team- 
ing, in a possible weather damage and in increased taxes. If they 
could save the teaming and store the goods in a warehouse at a freight 
terminal, it stands to reason that they would prefer doing so. We have 
reference, of course, to bulk stocks such as cement, meats, print goods, 
shoes, etc., which are sold on sample. The procedure would be for 
the material to arrive in Chicago, be taken out of the cars, carried in 
elevators to the upper floors of the railroad warehouses and there stored. 
The larger merchants would keep their stock stored at several terminals. 
When an order would come in for some of the material, it would be 
removed from the warehouse and shipped over the line coming into it. 
If warehouse business is profitable to those who go into it as an invest- 
ment, we take it that it would be profitable to the railroads, charging 
equal rates. With equal rates, the jobber would prefer to store his 
goods with the railroad warehouse and save teaming, since if he should 
not ship out over the road owning the warehouse, he could load his 
car there and pay switching charges on it for delivery to the other road. 
The railroad would have an income-producing property and would 
also reap an advantage in that they would have preference over the 
business stored in its warehouses. The jobber would save his teaming 
bill, which would not only put him to the profit side of the ledger, 
but would also tend to decrease serious derangement of his business by 
teamsters' strikes, a thing with which Chicago is thoroughly familiar, — 
so that both from the public point of view and from the railroad point 
of view, the erection of such warehouses would be advantageous. 

Now, the railroads in Chicago, in general, own the property on which 
their freight-houses are constructed. The Illinois Central, for instance, 
is debarred perhaps from erecting buildings over its right of way on 
the lake-front, but the freight-houses at the foot of South Water Street 
are built on property which was formerly a part of the Fort Dearborn 
military reservation, and as it was purchased outright from the United 
States government it is consequently free from restrictions. The char- 
ters of certain railroads may not permit them to enter a warehouse 



244 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

business, but their entry into such business seems commercially so 
advantageous to Chicago that we beUeve they would meet with the 
hearty support of the citizens of the city in an endeavor to amend their 
charters to provide for their entering this business. 

It is not practicable to construct such storage warehouses at present, 
because the damage to goods from the smoke would be large and the fire 
risk too heavy. But the adoption of electrical working would do away 
with the smoke and make the warehouses clean and would reduce the 
insurance rate. In addition, such warehouses could be extended over 
the entire freight terminal area, the tracks passing underneath them. 

The advantages of electric freight hauling are: 

1. Economy of operation from the use of the same power for the 
three forms of the service. 

2. Economy of upkeep from keeping sulphm-containing smoke from 
contact with equipment and buildings. 

3. Economy intrinsic to the freight service. 

4. More rapid service. 

5. Better use of the tracks. 

-6. Better use of storage space for engines. 

7. Better use of warehouses and the adoption of a storage- warehouse 
system. 

8. Possible double-decking of tracks into warehouses when the 
future demands it. , 

9. Smoke abatement. 

10. The affording to the pubhc of a city freight service analogous 
in its bearing to through freight service, to the bearing of suburban 
passenger service to through passenger service. 

On this matter we beg to offer the opinion of Mr. E. H. McHenry, 
vice-president of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, 
which we consider contains much of the essence of this matter. This 
was published in an article in the Street Railway Journal, August 
17, 1907: 

'^Numerous analyses and comparisons of the comparative costs of 
electric and steam operation have been pubhshed from time to time, 
which tend to prove that a considerable saving in fuel, engine repairs, 
and other operating expenses may be expected. Under favorable con- 
ditions this saving may be large enough to pay interest and other fixed 
charges upon the additional constructing investment and still leave a 
satisfactory margin to apply to dividends. Under general conditions, 
however, it is altogether improbable that the saving resulting from the 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 245 

simple substitution of electric for steam power will be sufficient to 
justify the additional investment and financial risk. 

" In changing the method of motive power on existent railways, the 
conditions are by on means so simple as in the construction of new lines, 
as in the former case a great amount of capital already invested must be 
sacrificed, and the problems of adaptation to existing conditions are 
peculiarly severe. In particular, the transition stage in bridging over the 
gap betw^een steam and electric operation is both expensive and difficult, 
as the change affects train lighting arid heating, telegraph and telephone 
service, signalling and track maintenance, for which both temporary and 
permanent provision must be made. The simultaneous maintenance of 
facilities and working forces for both steam and electric ser\dce within 
the same limits, will be rarely profitable, for the reason that a large pro- 
portion of expense incident to both kinds of service is retained without 
realizing the full economy of either. 

'' To secure the fullest economy, it is necessary, at least, to extend 
the new service over the whole length of the existing engine stage or 
district, and to include both passenger and freight trains, and in this 
connection, it is interesting to note that in the case of the New 
Haven company, the passenger-train mileage forms so large a pro- 
portion of the whole, that no additional generating and transmission 
capacity will be needed when electric traction is extended to freight 
service. 

" The application of electric traction to heavy railway service will 
probably be governed by other and more important considerations 
than its mere relative cost as a motive power under similar conditions, 
as illustrated in the development of the ordinary trolley service. In 
this development the conmiercial value of higher speeds and of increased 
car capacity is so large that the relative cost of electric versus animal 
Tactive power becomes almost negligible by comparison. Analogous 
esults may be hoped for in the corresponding development of electric 
action in heavy railway service, as the new conditions will afford 
^portimities for at least two radical modifications of existing condi- 

ns, quite apart from minor economies. 

'' In steam service, the weight and speed of trains are limited by the 
h(i le-power capacity of the locomotive, which generates its own power, 
an^ there are but few locomotives which can generate sufficient steam 
to utihze their full cylinder tractive powers at speeds in excess of 12 
miles an hour. Consequently, any increase of speed beyond certain 
limits can only be attained by sacrificing train tonnage in a correspond- 



246 ELZCTRITIGATIOX OF R.ULWAY TERMX.\LS 

ing degree. The diyision of the train-mile cost by the lesser number of 
tons, increases the ton-mile proportionately. 

" The high cost of fast freight service is principally due to the effect 
of a diminishing divisor, while it would seem that electric traction should 
permit high speeds without sacrificing commercial tonnage, as, with a 
relatively unlimited source of power at command^ the maxiTDnnn draw- 
bar pull permitted by the motor design may be maintained at all speeds. 

'' The commercial value of high speed in freight and passenger ser- 
vice is so great, that the prospect of escaping the present penalties 
accompanying reduced train capacity becomes doubly interesting. 

" Hardly less important is the opportimity afforded at the opposite 
end of the scale for the economical operation of trains of TniniTrmm 
capacity. The train capacity cannot be reduced, without loss, below 
the point where the earnings equal the train-mile cost, and if the cost 
cannot be reduced proportionately with reduced capacity, the inferior 
limit of capacity may be unnecessarily large. lu steam service the 
irreducible elements entering into the train-mile cost are so large, that 
it is rarely profitable to operate trains earning less than 40 to 50 
cents per mile. In contrast, electric service permits an extreme reduc- 
tion of the train length to single-car units, costing to operate but 10 to 
15 cents per car mile. Hence, the frequency of service may be in- 
creased and the rates reduced, which in tmn will react upon the 
volume of traffic, with the final result of increasing both gross and 
net earnings. 

" It may, therefore, be claimed for electric traction, that it will extend 
the limits of profitable operation of high-speed heavy trains and also 
of light trains of low capacity. 

''Other, but relatively minor advantages are possible in the effect 
upon earnings, due to the elimination of smoke, gases, dust, cinders, 
and heat, the better ventilation or cars, the extension of electric train 
lighting and heating, and of the effect upon expenses due to the con- 
centration of power-production iu large and economical power-houses, a 
reduction of engine repairs, an increase of effective engine and train 
mileage, a more or less complete elimination of engine-houses, turn-tables, 
fuel-stations, water-tanks, cinder-pits, and other operating facilities, the 
consohdation of power-requirements for traction, pimiping, operating 
shops, elevators, and general uses, and the use of current for lighting 
switch lamps, stations, and other buildings. 

" Finally, the availabihty and value of real estate and structiu-es at 
large terminals will be greatly augmented by the possibihty of using two 



ELECTRIC HANDLING OF FREIGHT 247 

or more superimposed track-levels, as strikingly exemplified in the plans 
for new terminals in New York City, for the New York Central and the 
Pennsylvania companies. 

" A general change from steam to electricity will render unproductive 
a very large amoimt of invested capital and create the necessity for the 
expenditure of additional amounts still greater, but there is no reason to 
doubt that the transition already in progress will be rapidly extended 
and applied to all points where congested terminals, high frequency of 
train service, and low costs of power create favorable conditions." 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 

H. H. EVANS 

The savings to be gained by electrical operation have been discussed 
in the chapter on the ^' General Aspects of Electrification." The sav- 
ings to be effected will, of course, act to produce a decrease in the oper- 
ating expenses. The fixed charges and other disbursements against 
operating income will not be affected by it, except that there will be an 
increase in fixed charges necessary for the carrying charges upon the 
investment in the electrical equipment. Operating expenses in general, 
for local steam-railroad operation, are about 63% of the operating 
income. The percentage of operating expenses to operating income 
in the entire United States, according to the simimary in the report 
of the Interstate Commerce Commission for 1906, was 66.8%, and for 
previous years as follows: 

1905 66.78% 1900. 64.05% 

1904 67.79% 1899 60.24% 

1903 66.16% 1898 65.50% 

1902 64.00% 1897 67.06% 

1901 64.85% 1896 67.20% 

The earnings from operation were distributed in 1906, as follows: 

Passenger 26.64% 

Freight 70.75% 

Other earnings 2 . 57% 

Unclassified 01% 

For Group VI, of the Interstate Commerce Commission's classification, 
in which is included Illinois, the percentages of operating expenses to 
operating income were: 

1906 63.91% 1900 61.91% 

1905 64.45% 1899 61.18% 

1904 65.90% 1898 62.17% 

1903 62.72% 1897 62.84% 

1902.. 61.48% 1896 60.80% 

1901 63.00% 

And the earnings from operation were divided as follows: 

Passenger 25 . 33% 

Freight 70.79% 

Other earnings 3 . 88% 

248 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 



249 



For the United States: 

For 1906, the average revenue per passenger mile in 

cents, was $2 .03 

The revenue per ton of freight per mile 00748 

The revenue per train mile of passenger trains 1 .20338 

The revenue per train mile of freight trains 2.60804 

The revenue per train mile of all trains 2 . 07547 

And the average cost of running a train, all trains 1 . 3706 

The 66.8% of operating expenses was distributed in the report as 
follows : 





Amount 






Per Cent 








Item 


















1906 


19061 


19052 


19043 


19034 


19025 


1901C 


19007 


Maintenance of way and struc- 


















txires: 


















1. Repairs of roadway. . . 


$164,468,769 


10.726 


10.393 


10.348 


11.093 


11.331 


10.924 


10.99 


2. Renewals of rails 


21,962,249 


1.432 


1.316 


1.298 


1.386 


1.521 


1.676 


1.138 


3. Renewals of ties 


38,467,183 


2.509 


2.657 


2,519 


2.487 


2.838 


3.140 


3.036 


4. Repairs and renewals 


















of bridges and cul- 


















verts 


33,846,281 


2.207 


2.319 


2.228 


2.461 


2.593 


2.730 


2.703 


6. Repairs and renewals 


















of fences, road cros- 


















sings, signs, and cat- 


















tle guards 


6,330,746 


.413 


.446 


.437 


.527 


.625 


.598 


.616 


6. Repairs and renewals 


















of buildings and fix- 


















tures 


35,325,172 


2.304 


2.114 


2.147 


2.590 


2.562 


2.417 


2.466 


7. Repairs and renewals 


















of docks and wharves 


3,695,079 


.241 


.208 


.209 


.235 


.220 


.283 


.308 


8. Repairs and renewals 


















of telegraph 


2,717.385 


.177 


.171 


.179 


.165 


.173 


.158 


.153 


9. Stationery and printing 


459,273 


.030 


.028 


.029 


.032 


.031 


.029 


.030 


10. Other exi)enses ........ 


3,938,667 


.257 


.132 


.125 


.209 


.361 


.317 


.352 


Total 


$311,210,804 


20.296 


19.784 


19.519 


21.185 


22.255 


22.272 


21.797 


Maintenance of equipment: 


















11. Superintendence 


$ 8,612,019 


.561 


.565 


.567 


.559 


.601 


.599 


.597 


12. Repairs and renewals 


















of locomotives 


123,893,482 


8.080 


8.290 


7.904 


7.408 


7.246 


6.695 


6.730 


13. Repairs and renewals 


















of passenger cars. . . . 


30,177,532 


1.968 


1.971 


1.951 


2.044 


2.157 


2.277 


2.263 


14. Repairs and renewals 


















of freight cars 


138,141,925 


9.009 


8.199 


7.777 


7.442 


7.432 


7.436 


7.687 


15. Repairs and renewals 


















of work cars 


4,107.826 


.268 


.242 


.231 


.242 


.245 


.233 


.252 


16. Repairs and renewals 


















of marine equipment. 


3.552,558 


.232 


.191 


.154 


.177 


.215 


.234 


.251 


17. Repairs and renewals 


















of shop machinery 


















and tools 


10,252,866 
721,291 


.668 
.047 


.663 
.043 


.704 
.042 


.696 
.046 


.643 
.044 


.605 
.043 


.604 


18. Stationery and printing 


.043 


19. Other expenses 


8,633,469 


.563 


.601 


.637 


.519 


.544 


.507 


.502 


Total 


$328,092,968 


21.396 


20.765 


19.967 


19.133 


19.127 


18.629 


18.929 


« onducting transportation: 


















20. Superintendence 


$ 27,235,858 


1.776 


1.803 


1.779 


1.742 


1.711 


1.726 


1.831 


21. Engine and round- 


















house men 


142,230,807 


9.275 


9.404 


9.550 


9.562 


9.401 


9.340 


9.476 


22. Fuel for locomotives . . 


170,499,133 


11.119 


11.278 


12.128 


11.675 


10.776 


10.602 


9.809 


23. Water supply for loco- 


















motives 


9,964,616 


.650 


.660 


.659 


.614 


.623 


.612 


.599 


24. Oil, tallow, and waste 


















for locomotives 


5,903,014 


.385 


.392 


.397 


.389 


.366 


.361 


.365 


25. Other supplies for lo- 


















comotives 


3,827,547 


.250 


.238 


.248 


.232 


.218 


.206 


.188 


26. Train service 


97,757,296 


6.375 J 


6.536 


6.735 


6.677 


6.737 


7.011 


7.244 



250 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 





Amount 


Per Cent 




1906 


1906 


1905 


1904 


1903 


1902 


1901 


1900 


Conducting transportation — 
Continued: 

27. Train supplies and ex- 

penses 

28. Switchmen, flagmen, 

and watchmen 

29. Telegraph expenses . . . 

30. Station service 

31. Station supplies 

32. Switching charges — 

balance 

33 Car per diem and mile- 
age — balance 

34. Hire of equipment — 

balance 

35. Loss and damage 

36. Injuries to persons . . . 

37. Clearing wrecks ...... 

38. Operating marine 

equipment 

39. Advertising 

40. Outside agencies 

41. Commissions 

42. Stock yards and eleva- 

tors 

43 . Rents for tracks , yards , 

and terminals 

44. Rents of buildings and 

other property 

45. Stationery and print- 

ing 

46. Other expenses 


$23,871,258 

66,805,942 

26,853,012 

96,710,193 

9,362,704 

4,490,989 

18,885,086 

3,082,822 
21,086,219 
17,466,864 

4,601,240 

10,502,581 

6,467,954 

20,731,859 

267,394 

849,201 

26,848,580 

4,963,862 

9,639,066 
3,763,815 


1.557 

4.357 

1.751 

6.307 

.611 

0.293 

1.231 

.201 
1.375 
1.139 

.300 

.685 

.422 

1.352 

.017 

.055 

1.751 

.324 

.629 
.245 


1.583 

4.336 

1.790 

6.438 

.646 

0.303 

1.358 

.219 
1.426 
1.156 

.259 

.714 

.430 

1.419 

.017 

.057 

1.727 

.347 

.632 
.318 


1.581 

4.386 

1.788 

6.605 

.686 

0.280 

1.358 

.195 
1.279 
1.196 

.275 

.696 

.418 

1.411 

.022 

.060 

1.563 

.382 

.640 
.353 


1.552 

4.313 

1.754 

6.664 

.667 

0.244 

1.400 

.214 
1.094 
1.120 

.284 

.745 

.428 

1.449 

.044 

.057 

1.544 

.411 

.642 
.376 


1.500 

3.984 

1.784 

6.832 

.676 

0.272 

1.480 

.180 

.990 

11048 

.221 

.721 

.429 

1.579 

.077 

.069 

1.519 

.440 

.622 
.416 


1.471 

3.848 

1.785 

6.947 

.672 

0.319 

1.618 

.161 
.819 
.911 
.189 

.862 

.428 

1.615 

.089 

.075 

1.724 

.440 

.638 
.510 


1.467 

3.944 

1.812 

7.109 

.679 

0.340 

1.800 

.223 
.764 
.910 
.173 

.866 

.432 

1.519 

.151 

.060 

1.728 

.464 

.653 
.579 


Total 


$834,668,912 


54.432 


55.486 


56.670 


55.893 


54.671 


54.979 


55.179 


General expenses: 

47. Salaries of general 

officers 

48. Salaries of clerks and 

attendants 

49. General office expenses 

and supplies 

50. Insurance 

51. Law expenses 

52. Stationery and print- 

ing (general offices).. 

53. Other expenses 


$12,660,837 

21,042,006 

4,028,647 
7,382,113 
6,938,807 

2,783,392 
4,595,899 


.826 

1.372 

.263 
.481 
.452 

.182 
.300 


.842 

1.340 

.249 
.496 
.512 

.176 
.350 


.841 

1.313 

.230 
.471 
.513 

.170 
.306 


.823 

1.254 

.234 
.432 
.541 

.175 
.330 


.925 

1.244 

.240 
.412 
.558 

.168 
.391 


.984 

1.262 

.257 
.384 
.625 

.161 

.447 


1.041 

1.269 

.262 
.349 
.571 

.166 
.437 


Total 


$59,431,701 


3.876 


3.965 


3.844 


3.789 


3.947 


4.120 


4.095 


Recapitulation of expenses: 

54. Maintenance of way 

and structures 

55. Maintenance of equip- 

ment 

56. Conducting transpor- 

tation 

57. General expenses 


$311,210,804 

328,092,968 

834,668,912 
59,431,701 


20.296 

21.396 

54.432 
3.876 


19.784 

20.765 

55.486 
3.965 


19.519 

19.967 

56.670 
3.844 


21.185 

19.133 

55.893 
3.789 


22.255 

19.127 

54.671 
3.947 


22.272 

18.629 

54.979 
4.120 


21.797 

18.929 

55.179 
4.095 


Grand Totali 


$1,533,404,385 


100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 



1 Based 

2 Based 

3 Based 
* Based 
6 Based 

6 Based 

7 Based 



on $1,533,404,385, which excludes : 
on $1,387,043,027, which excludes 
on $1,336,476,325, which excludes I 
on $1,254,936,972, which excludes 



$.472,886, unclassified. 
3,559,125, unclassified. 
2,419,928, unclassified. 
2,601,880, unclassified. 



on $1,114,266,660, which excludes $1,982,087, unclassified, 
on $989,654,973, which excludes $40,742,297, unclassified, 
on $923,432,555, which excludes $37,995,956, unclassified. 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 251 

^^Maintenance of ways and structures" will be affected to a small 
degree; thus, it may be found that there is less wear on the rails. Main- 
tenance of ties may be affected to a small extent, first, because of the sav- 
ing in ties which are burned from hot cinders, and second, because a 
lessened pounding of rail will produce a lessened tendency to pulling 
spikes and consequent shortening of the life of the ties. Buildings and 
fixtiu-es and metallic structures would be removed from the corrosive 
action of the gases and there would be a lessened amount of dirt to be 
cleaned from them. It is probable that these savings will about 
offset the extra amount chargeable to the maintenance of the current 
supply system. 

'^ General expenses " should be slightly augmented. 

The savings to be expected by electrification may then be expected 
from the items under "■ Maintenance of Equipment " and '^ Conducting 
Transportation," which form about 75% of the total operating expenses; 
and since the operating expenses are about 66% of the operating income, 
it is to items which form approximately 50% of the operating income, 
that we must look for returns. 

The largest savings in train-mile costs are to be expected in the items : 

Repairs and renewals of locomotives. 

Repairs and renewals of passenger cars. 

Engine and round house men. 

Fuel for locomotives. 

Water supply for locomotives. 

Stores for same. 

Train service (to a slight extent). 

Train supplies and expenses. 

Telegraph expenses, switchmen, flagmen, watchmen, injuries to 
persons, and clearing wrecks will probably be slightly increased in the 
aggregate, although the probability is that the stimulation brought about 
by electrification in the case of the suburban service will so far distrib- 
ute this added cost as to reduce the finite charge per train mile against 
these items. Repairs and renewals of freight cars might perhaps be 
slightly less, except that on terminal operation alone the freight cars 
which receive the advantage would so soon pass off the terminal that 
there would be no finite advantage to the railroad installing the electri- 
fication. 

A somewhat closer distribution of operating expenses is published 
by Byers in his "Economics of Railway Operation" covering the 



252 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

distribution of operating expenses on a large Eastern road in 1902, 
We give it below: 

MAINTENANCE OF WAY AND STRUCTURES 

Per cent Per cent Per cent 

Track maintenance 1.9 

Applying track material 0.9 

Roadway policing 2.0 

General clearing 0.3 

Total section labor 5.1 

Ballast 0.4 

Rails 1.5 

Ties 1.6 

Track appliances 0.5 

Roadway tools 0.2 

Total section materials 4.2 

Other roadway maintenance 0.8 

Bridges and culverts 1.6 

Buildings and grounds 1.5 

Docks and wharves 0.1 

Interlocking and signals 2.0 

Fences, road crossings, and signs. ... 0.2 

Telegraph and telephone service 0.2 

Total structures 6.4 

Engineering and superintendence 0.8 

Electric traction lines ■ 

Stationery and printing 0.1 

Incidentals 0.1 

Total miscellaneous 1.0 

Total maintenance of way and structures 16 . 7 

MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT 

Locomotives, repairs of 10 . 7 

Passenger cars, repairs of 1.6 

Freight cars, repairs of 6.9 

Work cars, repairs of 0.1 

Floating equipment, repairs of 0.0 

Total repairs 19.3 

Superintendence 0.8 

Tools and machinery 0.8 

Shops — heating and lighting 0.1 

Watchmen. 

Stationery and printing 

Incidentals 0.1 

Total miscellaneous 1.8 

Total maintenance of equipment 21 . 1 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 



253 



CONDUCTING TRANSPORTATION 

Per cent Per cent 

Station service — passenger 0.3 

Station service — freight 4.3 

Station service — combined 1.7 

Station supplies 0.5 

Stock yards and elevators 

Total station service 6.8 

Yard supervision 2*5 

Yardmen 3.6 

Yard engineers and firemen 2.2 

Yard locomotives, fuel for 1.3 

Total yard service 9 6 

Road engineers and firemen — pas- 
senger 1.8 

Trainmen — passenger 1.6 

Road locomotives — fuel for passen- 
ger 1.5 

Passenger cars — care of 0.6 

Other train supplies — passenger. ... 0.3 

Total train service — passenger 5 . 8 

Road engineers and firemen — freight- 5 . 5 

Trainmen — freight 7.6 

Road locomotives, fuel for freight 7 . 8 

Freight cars, lubrication 0.5 

Other train supplies — freight 0.1 

Total train service — freight 21.5 

Engine-house men 2.1 

Fuel station, operation of 0.4 

Locomotives, water supply for 0.7 

Locomotives, stores for 0.3 

Locomotives, other supplies for 0.4 

Total engine service 3.9 

Signalmen 0.3 

Highway-crossing watchmen 0.3 

Policemen 0.5 

Total misceUianeous labor 1 . 1 

Signal supplies 0.3 

Highway-crossing supplies 0.1 

Total miscellaneous material. ... 0.4 

Wrecks, clearing 0.6 

Injuries to persons 0.6 

Loss and damage 1.7 

Total casualties 2.9 



254 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



Switching service 

Car service 

Hire of equipment 

Rent of tracks, yards, and terminals. 
.Rent of buildings and grounds 

Total debit and credit accounts. 



Per cent Per cent Per cent 



0.2 
0.5 
0.6 



1.3 



1.6 



Superintendence — transportation . . 
Telegraph and telephone, — operators 

of 

Floating equipment, — operators of. . 

Elevator and longshore labor 

Dining cars, hotels, and restaurants 

Motormen and conductors 

Electric traction, power plants, operation 

Stationery, and printing 

Incidentals 

Total Miscellaneous 

Grand Total — Conducting Transportation 58 . 3^ 

The distribution of expenses for the Mechanical Department, in which 

will come the greater savings in electrification, are given by this author 

as follows : 

MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT EXPENDITURES 



2.3 
0.6 
0.1 



0.3 
0.1 



5.0 



Repairs , 



Plant 



Engine, fuel and 
supplies .... 



Preparation. 



Miscellaneous. . 



Locomotives, repairs of. . 
Passenger cars, repairs of 
Freight cars, repairs of . . 
Work cars, repairs of . . . . 



Tools and machinery 

Shops, heating and lighting 



Fuel for locomotives 

Fuel station operation 

Water supply for locomotives 

Stores for locomotives 

Other supplies, locomotives . . 



Engine house men . . . . 
Care of passenger cars . 
Freight-car lubrication. 



Superintendence 

Watchmen 

Stationery 

Incidental 



Percentage 
of Total 

Machinery 

Department 

Expense 



30.1 
4.5 

19.4 
0.3 



54.3 



2.2 

a.3 



2.5 



27.0 
1.0 
1.9 
0.8 
1.0 







31 


7 


5 

1 
1 


9 

7 
4 


9 









2 


2 









.3 










2 


.5 



100.0 



Percentage 

of Total 

Operating 

Expense 



10.7 
1.6 
6.9 
0.1 



19.3 



0.8 
0.1 



0.9 



9.6 
0.4 
0.7 
0.3 
0.4 







11 


4 


2 




1 
6 
5 


3 








.2 





8 









1 













9 



35.7 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 255 

The cost of repairing locomotives per 100 locomotive miles, in 1903, 
is given by Byers as follows: 

1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 

B. &0. $3.63 $4.71 $4.76 $5.47 $7.11 

Penn. R. R. 3 . 99 4 . 87 5 .04 5 . 57 
Penn. R. R. West 

N.W. System 3.56 4.47 4.57 5.24 

S.W. System 3.94 4.62 5.43 5.70 

B. &M. 3.90 
N. Y., N. H. &H. 5.09 
D. &R. G. 5.85 
Hocking Valley 4.00 
St. L. &S. W. 6.07 

C. &0. 6.56 
N. &W. 5.62 
C. &G. W. 6.82 
Illinois Central 5.81 
C. R. R. of N. J. 8.30 
M. S. P. & S. S. M. 6.90 
Erie 8.28 
L. V. 10.01 
C. I. &L. 3.05 
Southern 7.69 
A. T. &S. F. ' 9.97 

These figures it will be noticed are extremely variable. . This comes 
from the fact that prior to the adoption of the Interstate Commerce 
Commission system of accounting railroad charges, the systems for such 
accounts were variable, one railroad charging simply the repairs of loco- 
motives; another railroad charging the acquisition of all new locomotives 
into the repair fund : and another road perhaps charging into the repair 
fund the purchase of all new locomotives for the replacement of worn- 
out ones; new locomotives in addition to regular equipment having a 
new issue of capital stock against them. 

A United States Census Report, issued in 1902, gives the following 
percentage distribution of gross income of electric surface-operating 
companies in the United States : — it will be noticed that the operating 
expenses are 57% 

FROM CENSUS REPORT 

Percentage Distribution of Gross Income of Electric Surface-Operating Companies 
1902, without Commercial Lighting 

Gross income 100 % 

Operating expenses 57 . 3% 

Taxes 5.3% 

Interest, total 14 . 1% 

On bonded debt 12.9% 

On other debt 1.2% 



256 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Rental of leased lines 12 . 3% 

Miscellaneous deduction. 0.2% 

Dividends .' . . 5 . 9% 

Surplus 4.9% 

Freight revenue is .008 of total for all roads in United States. 
Below is the percentage distribution of operating expenses in the 
same report: 

Per cent Per cent 

Maintenance of ways and structures 8.5 

Tracks and roadway 5.7 

Electric cable and fines 2.1 

Buildings and fixtures 0.7 

Maintenance of equipment, total 11.7 

Steam plant 0.9 

Electric cable, etc., plant 0.6 

Cars 5.4 

Electric cable, etc., equipment cars 3.7 

Miscellaneous 0.5 

Miscellaneous shop expenses 0.6 

Operation of power plant, total 16.2 

Wages ■ 3.2 

Fuel... 9.0 

' Water 0.5 

Lubricants and waste 0.4 

Miscellaneous supplies and expenses 0.4 

Hired power 2.7 

Operation of cars, total 43 . 9 

Superintendence of transportation 1.8 

Wages of conductors 16 . 9 

Wages of Motormen 17.3 

Wages of other car service employees 1.8 

Car-service supplies ". . 1.3 

Miscellaneous car-service expense 1.4 

Cleaning and sanding track 0.5 

Removal of snow and ice 0.6 

Wages of car house employees 2.3 

. iscellaneous, total 18 . 1 

Salaries, general officers 2.1 

Salaries, clerks 1.6 

Printing and stationery 0.3 

Miscellaneous office expenses 0.5 

Store-room expenses 0.2 

Stable expenses 1.0 

Advertising and attractions 1.4 

Damages 5.3 

Legal expenses connected with damages. 1.3 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 257 

Per cent Per cent 

Other legal expenses 0.7 

Rent of land and buildings 0.4 

Rent of track and terminals. 1.0 

Insurance 1.5 

Wages, supplies, and expenses incidental to 
electric service, not elsewhere included . . 1.6 

100.0 

The capitalization, the system of accounting, and the system of 
maintenance of surface electric-railway lines are different from steam- 
railroad lines and too close a comparison of these tables should not be 
attempted. The tables are useful, however, in affording us a basis of 
judging what will be the relation between the maintenance of the different 
portions of the equipment, perhaps. That is, it is not safe to take such 
statistics and predict from them what the proportion of maintenance of 
electric motors cars for a standard steam railway will be to the general 
expenses, or to the maintenance of overhead structures, but they are 
useful in affording a basis for prediction of what ratio will exist between 
the maintenance of car bodies and car equipment, — although, even in 
this case, the statistics refer mainly to light street-railway cars in which 
the maintenance of motors and electrical equipment will bear a larger 
proportion to the maintenance of car bodies than would be the case in 
the heavier equipments used on an electrified steam railway. 



COST OF ELECTRIFICATION 

In the chapter on Existent Electrifications, the costs, where known, 
of electrified lines, are given. For convenience, these are tabulated 
below : 

Over-all estimates or costs of electrification projects and of electric 
railways, embracing power-house, transmission line, sub-stations, line 
construction, track bonding, and rolling stock: 



Road 


Kind 


Total Cost 


Miles 


Cost per Mile 


Remarks 


New Haven 


S i n g 1 e-p base 
double-messen- 
ger catenary 


S2,750,000 


85.8 


$32,000.00 


Preliminary e s t i - 
mate 21.45 miles, 
Woodlawn to 
Stamford (a) 


New Haven 

West Jersey & 
Seashore 


Third-rail direct- 
current 

Third-rail direct- 
current 


2,876,000 

2,000,000 

to 
3,000,000 


150. 


(?) 


Willis Ave. to New 
Rochelle and con- 
nections. (Not car- 
ried out) (b) 



258 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



Road 


Kind 


Total Cost 


Miles 


Cost per Mile 


Remarks 


Southern Pacific 


Direct-current 
trolley 


1,250,000 


14.5 




Preliminary e s t i - 
mate 1906 


Southern Pacific 


Direct-current 
trolley 


1,881,000 






Alameda mole pre- 
liminary estimate. 
Statement, Gen. 
Mgr. Calvin 


Southern Pacific 
Grand Trunk 


Direct-current 

trolley 
S i n g 1 e-p h a s e 

single catenary 


2,500,000 

500,000 to 
1,000.000 






Later estimate 


London, Brigh- 
ton & South 
Coast 

Paris-Orleans 

London & 

North East- 


Alternating-cur- 
rent catenary 
single-phase 

Third- rail direct- 
current 

Direct-current 
third-rail 


1,250,000 

1,490,000 
930,000 


37.3 

82 


40,000.00 
11,342.00 


H. M. Hobart 
Dubois 


Valtellina 
Milan- Varese 


Three-phase 


1,240,000 
1,100,000 


67 
105.7 


18,500.00 
10,404.00 


Itahan esti mate 



(a) Preliminary estimates covering electrifications of 21.45 

miles of four-track road for N. Y., N. H. & H $ 570,000 

Power-house, excluding real estate (12,000 kilowatts) 1,130,000 

35 Locomotives 1,050,000 



$2,750,000 



Or about $32,000 per mile, single track. Line equipment $6,650 per 
mile, single track. 

Estimates of George Westinghouse in letter to W. H. Newman, 
President New York Central railroad, October 27, 1905, for N. Y., 
N. H. &H. R. R.: 



PER MILE FOUR-TRACK LINE 



Sub-stations 

Contact line 

Transmission line 

Track bonding 

Which is 

per mile of single track. 



Alternating 
Current 

$1,714 

12,436 

1,815 

308 



$16,273 
$ 4,068 



Direct 
Current 

$16,150 

18,872 

2,181 

308 

$37,511 
$ 9,378 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 



259 



PER MILE DOUBLE-TRACK LINE 

Alternating Direct 

Current Current 

Sub-Stations $ 1,542 $13,840 

Contact line $ 6,750 9,436 

Transmission line 1,815 2,181 

Track bonding 154 154 

$10,261 $25,611 

Which is $ 5,130 $12,806 

per mile of single track. 

35 Electric locomotives costing say $900,000 = $25,715 each. 
180 Multiple-unit motor-car equipments, say $775,000 = .$4,306 each. 

(b) Estimate of N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. covering proposed equip- 
ment (with direct-current third rail) of four tracks from Willis Avenue 
station, New York, to New Rochelle with extensions to Mt. Vernon, 
West Farms and across Randalls and Wards Islands to connect with 
Pennsylvania railroad : 

71 cars equipped complete $750,000 

4 third rails with top protectors and bonding sur- 
face rails with marine cable at drawbridge 415,000 

Feed wires, high-tension wires, pole line 336,000 

2 sub-stations and apparatus 280,000 

Power-house, with all material 920,000 

Car-house 100,000 

Sundries 75,000 

Total $2,876,000 



COST OF TRANSMISSION LINES 

Below we give a tabulation of a number of published estimates of 
various transmission lines. Further details concerning them in general 
can be found in the chapter on Existent Electrifications: 



Road 


Kind 


Total Cost 


Miles 


Cost per Mile 


Remarks 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Single-phase 






$1,815 


Estimate Geo. West- 
ing-house 


N.Y., N.H.&H. 


Three-phase 






2,181 


Estimate Geo. West- 
ing-house 


Paris-Orleans 


Three-phase 


$103,000 


22.2 


4,640 


Dubois 


Typical 


Single-phase 






1,200 


Lincoln 


Typical 


33, 000- volt single- 
phase, wooden 
poles 






4,125 


A. H. Armstrong, 
"Stand. H-book" 


Typical 


33,000- volt three- 
phase, wooden 
poles 






1,637 


A. H. Armstrong, 
"Stand. H-book'' 



260 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



Road 



Typical 



Bergdorf-Thun 

Projected 
Typical 



Typical 

Typical 

Boston & East- 
em 

Boston & East- 
em 

Typical 

Typical 
Typical 



Kind 



33,000-volt three 
phase, wooden 
poles duplicate 
line 

16,000-volt three 
phase 

Three-phase 

Three-phase,poles 
charged to trol- 
ley 

Single-phase,poles 
charged to trol- 
ley 

Three-phase 

Cable line, three- 
phase 

Aerial line, three- 
phase 

10,000 V. 3-phase, 
No. cable 

10,000 V. 3-phase, 
No. 3 cable 

33,000-volt single. 
No. 4 B. & S. 
poles incl. with 
trolley 



Total Cost 



22,000 
20,500 



19,800 



Miles 



48 
48 



36 



Cost per Mile 



3,392 



1,228 

2,000 
470 



427 



1,400 
7,920 

4,000 

$840 per 
1,000 ft. 
$600 per 
1,000 ft. 
$550 



Remarks 



A. H, Armstrong, 
"Stand. H-book" 



Marecha. 

Itahan Government 
W. A. Blanck 



W. A. Blanck 

Gonzenbach 
Published estimate 

Published estimate 

Waterman A.I.E.E. 

Waterman A.I.E.E. 

McLaren 



COST OF LINE EQUIPMENT 

Below are various published estimates of the cost of line equipment, 
including contact line, feeders, and track bonding: 



Road 


Kind 


Total Cost 


Miles 


Cost per 
MUe 


Remarks 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Single-phase 


$570,000 


85.8 


$6,650. 


Preliminary esti- 
mate 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Single-phase 






3,186. 


Estimate Geo. West- 
ing-house cover- 
ing four-track 
road 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Single-phase 






3,452. 


Estimate Geo. West- 


fe 










ing-house covering 
two-track road 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Third-rail, direct- 
current 






4,795. 


Estimate Geo. West- 
ing-house covering 
four-track road 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Third-rail direct- 
current 






4;795. 


Estimate Geo. West- 
ing-house covering 
two- track road 


West Shore 


Direct-current 
catenary 


75,000 


6.4 


(?) 


Between Frankfort 
and Herkimer 


Typical 


Alternating-cur- 
rent, steel 
bridge work, 


10,300 


2.0 


5,150. 


StillweU and Put- 
nam A. I. E. E. 


• 


mile double 
track 











NOTES ON ECONOMICS 



261 



Road 


Kind 


Total Cost 


Miles 


Cost per 
Mile 


Remarks 


Typical 


Alternating-cur- 
rent, catenary, 
steel-pole 
bracket 






4,800. 


Stillwell and Put- 
nam A.I. E. E. 


General 






. 


3,500. 

to 
5.000. 


0. S. Lyford, A. I. 
E. E. Oct. 7, 1908 


Typical 


Third-rail direct- 
current 






2.900. 


Lincoln 


Typical 


Third-rail direct- 


10,450 


2 


5,225. 


Adapted from Got- 




current double 


to 




to 


shall 




track 


5,400 


2 


2,700. 




Typical 


Third-rail direct- 
current 




3 


3,410.92 


Maurice H o o p e s 
1901 


Typical 


Direct-current 
trolley, span 
construction 
equivalent to 
third- rail 






4,421.58 


Maurice H o o p e s 
1901 


Typical 


Direct-current 
third rail, 
wooden shelf, 
plank protec- 
tion 






4,540 . 


W. B. Potter 


Typical 


Third-rail. un- 
protected 






3,400. 


Computed from 
Gonzenbach 


Typical 


Third-rail, un- 
protected 






4,780. 


A. H. Armstrong, 
"Stand. H-book" 


Typical 


Third-rail, top 
contact, pro- 
tected 






5,738. 


A. H. Armstrong 
"Stand. H-book" 


Typical 


Third-rail under- 
running, pro- 
tected 






5,535. 


A. H. Armstrong 
"Stand. H-book" 


Typical 


600-volt direct- 
current span- 
construction, 
single track 






3,326. 


A. H. Armstrong 
"Stand. H-book» 


Typical 


Same, double 
track 






4,966 . 


A. H. Armstrong 
"Stand. H-book" 


Typical 


600-volt trolley 
construction 
single track 






2,497 . 


A. H. Armstrong 
"Stand. H-book" 


Typical 


Same, double 
track 






4,420. 


A. H. Armstrong 
"Stand. H-book" 


Typical 


Alternating - cur- 




single 


S3,103. 


A. H. Armstrong, 




rent, catenary- 




track 




"Stand. H-book" 




trolley con- 




double 


5,279 . 


A. H. Armstrong, 




struction 




track 




"Stand. H-book" 


Grand Trunk 


Alternating - cur- 
rent, catenary 
on bridges 






10,000 . 




Typical 


Four-track alter- 
nating- current 
catenary on 
steel bridges 


28,262 


4 


7,065. 


A. H. Armstrong, 
"Stand. H-book" 


Valtellina 


Three-phase 


340,000 


67 


5,075. 




Burgdorf-Thun 


Three-phase 


70,000 


25 


2,800. 




Seebach-Wet- 


Single-phase 






2,400 . 


Contractors' e s t i - 


tingen 










mate 



262 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



Road 


Kind 


Total Cost 


Miles 


Cost per 
Mile 


Remarks 


Swedish State 


Single-phase 






$6,060. 


Mr. Dahlander 


Typical 


Third-rail direct- 
current 






6,700. 


Marechal 


Typical 


Span construc- 
tion, trolley, 
double track 


$4,000 


2 


2,000. 


Marechal 


Italian roads 


Third-rail direct- 
current 






6,000. 


Italian Commis- 
sioners' estimate 


Italian roads 


Three-phase 






4,000. 


Italian Commis- 
sioners' estimate 


Entire road 


Third- rail direct- 
current 






4,000. 


Italian Commis- 
sioners' estimate 


Boston and 


Double track, 


9,178 


2 


4,589. 


Computed from pub- 


Providence 


trolley, span 
construction, 
iron poles. 








lished estimate 


Mass. & R. I. 


Double track. 


7,376 


2 


3,688. 


Computed from pub- 


St. Ry. 


center pole, 
trolley 








lished estimate 


Typical 


Double track, 
trolley, wood- 
en poles, span 
constru c t i o n 
direct-current 


188,000 


60.2 


1,567. 


W. A. Blanck 


Typical 


Same, alterna- 
ting-current. 
Single-phase 


94,000 


60.2 


7,833. 


W. A. Blanck 


Typical 


Double track, 
direct-current, 
trolley, iron 
poles, not in- 
cluding bonds 


8,100 


2.1 


4,050. 


Computed from Arn- 
old report 


Typical 


Direct-current, 
t h i r d - r a i 1 , 
overhead i n 
towns. 


247,800 


66 


3,754. 


Computed from Gon- 
zenbach's figures 


Boston & East- 


Third- rail 






5,200. 


Published estimate 


em 
Typical 


Three-phase trol- 
ley 
Direct-current, 






1,800. 


Waterman 


Typical 


242,700 


63 


3,852. 


MacLaren 




catenary 










Typical 


Alternating - cur- 
rent, single- 
phase, caten- 
ary 


182,700 


63 


2,900. 


MacLaren 



ROLLING-STOCK 

The largest sizes of motor equipments cost from $10 to $15 per horse- 
power. With the large sizes used, the number which would be required, 
and the present low prices of materials, we beUeve that an estimate 
of $10 per horse-power would be a safe one for an electrification of 
considerable size. Or, for the changing over of present suburban cars 
into motor cars, $5,000 each would suffice for the change, this to cover 
motors, controllers, electric air brakes, circuit-breakers and lightning- 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 



263 



arresters, rheostats, trolley pole, contact shoes, and wiring. For electric 
locomotives, $30,000 for the larger sizes, down to S15,000 for Hght 
switching-locomotives, should be a fair figure. Below we have tabu- 
lated a number of estimates on such equipment : 



Road 


Kind 


Costs 


Remarks 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Electric locomotives, alternating- 
current single-phase 


$35,000 each 


Early estimates 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Electric locomotives,altemating- 


25,715 " 


Estimate Geo. West- 




current single-phase 




inghouse 


N.Y.,N.H. &H. 


Multiple-unit motor-car equip- 


4,306 " 


Estimate Geo. West- 




ments 




inghouse 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Cars complete equipped with 


10,566 " 


Estimate on electrifi- 




direct-current multiple-unit 




cation of four-track 




equipments 




line, Willis Avenue 
to New Rochelle, 
not carried out 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Electric locomotives 


30,000 " 


Wilgus, A. S. C. E. 


New York Central 


Electric locomotives 


30,000 " 


Wilgus, A. S. C. E. 


New York Central 


Steel motor cars complete 


16,000 '' 




Bavarian Railways 


Electric locomotives 


15,000 " 




Paris-Orleans 


Electric locomotives 


24,000 " 


Marechal 


Typical 


Electric locomotives,three-phase 


19,000 " 


Waterman, A. I. E. E. 



MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES^ 

This has been discussed in the chapter on General Aspects of Elec- 
trification. Two and one-half cents per train mile seems a fair figure. 
Below are estimates or actual costs, which have appeared from time to 
time. 



Road 


Kind 


Cost 
per Day 


Cost 
per Mile 


Remarks 


N. Y. Central 


Electric locomotives 
100,000-mile test 




$.0126 


200 to 400 ton train over 
6-mile track 


N. Y. Central 


Electric locomotives 


$2.02 




Wilgus 


Paris-Orleans 


Electric locomotives 




.025 


Dubois 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


Electric locomotives 




.025 


W. S. Murray 


St. Louis & 


Electric locomotives 


2.82 






Belleville 










Buffalo, Niagara 






.005 




& Lockport 










Valtellina, 1904 


Electric locomotives 




.0138 


Czerhati 


Valtellina, 1906 


Electric locomotives 




.018 


Stillwell and Putnam 


Valtellina 


Electric locomotives 
and motor cars 




.0135 


Waterman 


Valtellina 


Electric locomotives 
and motor cars 




.01 


Preliminary estimate, 
Ganz & Company 


B. & 0. R. R. 


Electric locomotives 




.192 


Muhlfeld 


B. & 0. R. R. 


Electric locomotives 




.127 


Muhlfeld 



264 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF ELECTRIC MOTOR CARS 

Below is a list of published costs, or estimated costs, per car mile of 
maintenance and repairs to electric motor cars. The estimate of Daw- 
son (^'Engineering and Electric Traction Pocket-book"), we give in 
detail. It seems to coincide very closely in its particulars with results 
which have been attatined from actual experience; and the costs of 
power-plant equipment, given by this author, are so accurate, so far 
as we have been able to check them, that we are inclined to place great 
confidence in this estimate. 



Name 


Apparatus 


Cost per car mile 


Authority 


Manhattan Ele- 


Motor cars, each ; heat- 


0.28 cents (for electric 


Stillwell and Put- 


vated, 1906 


ing and lig 


hting 


equipment) 


nam 




apparatus included 






N. Y. Subway, 


Motor cars, including 


0.38 cents (electric equip- 


Stillwell & Putnam 


1906 


heating and 
ing apparatus 


light- 


ment) 




Wilkesbarre & 


500 horse-power 


mo- 


0.39 cents (for electric 


Stillwell & Putnam 


Hazleton,1905 


tor cars 




equipment) 




Lackawanna & 


34 motor cars, electric 


0.84 cents (for electric 


Stillwell & Putnam 


Wyoming 


locomotive 




equipment) 




Valley, 1906 










Niagara, Buffalo 


Motor cars 




0.79 cents (for electric 


Stillwell & Putnam 


& Lockport, 






equipment) 




1906 










Valtellina, 1904 


Motor cars and 


elec- 


1.4 cents (per locomotive or 


Stillwell & Putnam 




trie locomotives 


car mile) 




Estimate 


Electric interurban 


$.02 per car mile 


Gotshall 


Elevated road 


cars 
Motor coaches 




.0125 per car mile 


Gotshall 


Estimate 


Motor coaches 




.00961 per car mile 


Dawson (c) 


Aurora, Elgin 


Motor coaches 




.0138 per car mUe 


Railroad Commis- 


& Chicago 








sioners' Report 


Chicago & Oak 


Motor coaches 




.0102 per car mile 


Railroad Commis- 


ParkElevated 








sioners' Report 


Metropolitan 


Motor coaches 




.0155 per car mile 


Railroad Commis- 


Elevated 








sioners' Report 


Northwestern 


Motor coaches 




.0190 per car mile 


Railroad Commis- 


Elevated 








sioners' Report 


South Side El- 


Motor coaches 




.0141 per car mile 


Railroad Commis- 


evated 








sioners' Report 


Boston Eleva- 


Motor coaches 




.0184 per car mile 


Railroad Commis- 


ted 








sioners' Report 


Manhattan El- 


Motor coaches 




.0025 per car mile 


Potter 


evated 










Estimate 


Motor coaches 




.01 per train mile 


Potter 


Paris- Versailles 


Motor coaches 




.024 per train mile 


Dubois 


Mersey Rail- 


Motor coaches 




.0215 per train mile 




V-:' way 








A. H. Armstrong 


Estimate 


Motor coaches 




.01 per car mile 


(estimate) 


Estimate 


Motor coaches 




.0058 per car mile (for 
electric equipment orily) 


Street 


Bloomington, 


Motor coaches, single- 


.007 per car rmle (for elec- 




Pontiac & Jo- 


phase 




trical equipment only) 




liet 











NOTES ON ECONOMICS 



265 



COST OF MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT PER CAR MILE 

(c) Car bodies : 

Including painting, upholstering and all work of any description 

on the car bodies, except the daily cleaning $ .004 

Trucks : 

AU labor and material on trucks, with the exception of brake 

shoes 00125 

Air brakes : 

All labor and material on brake mechanisms, including renewals 

of brake shoes 00154 

Air compressors and governors : 

All costs of renewals, including labor and material of every 
description 00030 

Multiple-unit controUing apparatus: 

Covering all labor and material on complete control equipment. . . 00142 

Motors 00110 



Total $.00961 

For a two-motor (125 horse-power each) equipment. 
(From Engineering & Electric Traction Pocket-book.) 



LINE MAINTENANCE 



This will be about $100 to $150 per mile. Below is a tabulation of 
published results or estimates: 



Name 


Equipment 


Cost 


Authority 


Estimate 


Alternating-current, 
overhead 


$150 per mile 


Stillwell & Putnam 


West Shore 


Direct-current third 
rail 


54 . 72 per mile 


F. J. Sprague 


Estimate 


Direct-current third 


$100 per mile 


Italian c o m m i s - 




rail 




sioners' estimate 


General Av. 


Direct-current troUey 


$149 11 per mile 


Street 


General Av. 


Cables in conduit 


$460.39 per mile 


Street 


Lancashire & York- 


Third rail insulators 


Under 1% 




shire 


(1906) 






Bloomington, 


Single-phase line, first 


$43 . 82 for line 




Pontiac & Joliet 


9}^ mos. for 10.4 
miles 






Valtellina, 1904 


Three-phase o v e r - 
head 


$104 


Czerhati 


Valtellina, 1905 


Three-phase o v e r- 
head 


$102 




Paris- Versailles 


Three-conductor ca- 
bles in conduit 


$233 


Dubois 



266 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



WATT-HOUR CONSUMPTION FOR MOVING TRAINS 

Below is a table under the above heading. It is interesting when all 
the circumstances of the equipment are known. As a means of pre- 
dicting the power consumption of a given installation, it is of course 
entirely worthless, imless the train weights, mean speed, and distance 
between stops and installations are identical. The probable consump- 
tion for each particular class of train and character of run must be 
computed by plotting speed tune-curves and from these the curve or 
kilowatt input, and from this, in turn, the watt-hours per ton mile. 
Careful calculation of this kind will give accmracy to within 2% to 3%. 







Per ton 


Per ton mile 


Per 




Road 


Service 


mile to 


at power- 


train 


Remarks 






vehicle 


house 


mile 




N.Y,N.H.&H. 


Electric locomotive 


(44D.C. 






St. Ry. Journal 




passenger service 


]42.5 

(a.c. 






Aug. 24, 1907 


General 


Electric locomotive 
passenger service — 
10 mile run 




33 (est) 




Stillwell and 
Putnam 


General 


Electric locomotive 
freight service — 20 
miles per hour 




17 (est) 




Stillwell and 
Putnam 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


On N. Y. Central zone 




41.9 




W. S. Murray 


N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


On N. Y. Central zone 


36.7 


Few stops 




W. J. Wilgus 


N. Y. Central 


On N. Y. Central zone 


28.9 


Few stops 






N. Y. Central 


On N. Y. Central zone 


33.8 


More stops 






N.Y.,N.H.&H. 


On N. Y. Central zone 


41.9 


More stops 






Valtellina 


Electric locomotive 


58 


71.3 






Niederschoen- 






72 






weide Spind- 












lersfeld 












Vienna Stadt- 




56 






Estimate 


bahn 












Subaithal 






70 






Central London 




57 






Parshall 


Milan- Varese 






90 






MUan-Varese 




49 








Valtellina 






64 






Paris-Orleans 




45-65 








Manhattan Ele- 




70 


82 




StiUwell 


vated 












Central London 




50 








Lancashire and 






80 






Yorkshire 












City and South 




55.2 








London 













NOTES ON ECONOMICS 



267 



WORKS COSTS OF POWER IN CENTS, PER KILOWATT-HOUR 

We append some published estimates of works costs of power, this 
including fuel, labor, waste, oil, supplies, water, and running repairs: 



Name 



General 

West 

N. Y. Central 

General 

Glasgow 

Dublin 

Estimate 

Estimate 

Estimate direct current 
Estimate alt. current. . 



Per kilowatt-hour 



. 6 cents 
. 5 cents 
. 58 cents 
Less than 0.7 cents 
. 56 cents 
. 81 cents 
. 65 cents 
. 50 cents 
. 6 cents 
. 5 cents 
. 992 cents at car 



Authorities 



Stillwell and Putnam 

Stillwell and Putnam 

Wilgus 

H. G. Stott 

Parshall and Hobart 

Parshall and Hobart 

Got shall 

Potter 

MacLaren 

MacLaren 

Chicago City Railway 



Cost of fuel 



Coal $3 per ton 
Coal $3.05 per ton 



Coal $2.40 per ton 
Coal $2.40 per ton 



Coal for power-plant use in Chicago can be bought in lots of several 
thousand tons for within two or three cents, one way or the other, of 
$1 per ton, f. o. b. mines for run of mine coal. This can be delivered in 
Chicago on the siding, for a price of $1.55 to $1.75 per ton of 2,000 
pounds, — depending upon the distance which it is shipped. Labor is 
comparatively cheap in Chicago, and the use of mechanical stokers is 
general. With large plants, such as would be used by the railroads, 
the works cost of power at the switchboard would be four-tenths of a 
cent or imder. This is about the cost at which the large power-plants 
in Chicago are making current at present. In New York it runs some- 
where around one-half cent. This is because coal is higher in New 
York, labor costs more and there is considerable hand firing, water is 
more expensive and a great deal of difliculty is had with condenser 
tubes. The following is a record of actual cost at a large power-plant, 
where conditions and costs are sensibly equal to those which would be 
encountered in a large electric-traction power-plant located in Chicago: 





July 
1904 


August 
1904 


September 
1904 


October 
1904 


Labor 

Coal 

Oil 

Waste 


$2,407.03 

5,700.51 

430.00 

53.67 

364.67 

193.60 


$2,399.98 

5,223.00 

530.40 

36.40 

191.52 

148.00 


$2,463.24 

5,716.43 

706.00 

44.30 

267.48 

267.00 


$2,703.03 

7,635.24 

670.00 

48 53 


Water 


249 10 


Supplies 


315.00 


Total 


$9,149.48 
81.50 


$8,529.30 
76.00 


$9,473.45 
75.00 


$11,620.90 
112.00 


Credit by sale of cinders 






Net operating cost 


$9,067.98 

2,004,520 

4,299 

4.1 

.00443^ 


$8,453.30 

2,170,720 

4,132 

3 8 

.0039^ 


$9,398.45 

2,557 000 

4,387 

3.5 

.00367^ 


$11,508.90 

3,047,000 

6,223 

3.93 

.00377^ 


Total output kilowatt-hours 

Total tons coal consumed 


Pounds coal per kilowatt-hours.. . . 
Total cost per kilowatt-hour 



268 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



OPERATING EXPENSES FOR NOVEMBER, 1906 

Cost per 

Total Cost Kilowatt-hour 

Salaries ' $3,926. 12 $0.000723 

Oil (estimated) 655.00 .000120 

Waste 40.63 .000007 

Water (4,754,288 gallons) 383 . 55 . 000071 

Unloading coal 320.90 .000059 

Miscellaneous supplies, shop work, 

etc. (estimated) 300 .00 .000055 

Boiler tubes (approximate) 

Amount paid for coal 11,060 . 76 .002037 

One set carbon rings for turbine. . . 185 . 00 . 000034 



Total expenses $16,871 . 96 $0 .003106 

Net output to line 5,428,060 kilowatt-hours. 

. Lbs. per 

Coal consumption: Total lbs. Kilowatt-hour. 

Received in November from our 

weights ; . . 17,628,600 

Estimated stock Lbs. 

Nov. 1 4,000,000 

Estimated stock 

Dec. 1 600,000 



3,400,000 
Decrease in stock 3,400,000 



Net coal consumption 21,028,600 3.87 

For the above plant, the lubricating-oil consumption was as f oUows : 

Gallons per 
Total Gallons Kilovvatt-hour 

Valve-oil consumption 1,649.5 .303 

Engine-oil consumption 734.0 . 13 

Turbine-oil consumption 300.0 .055 



Total 2,683.5 .488 

COSTS OF POWER-PLANTS AND APPARATUS 

New York, New Haven & Hartford estimates, 

12,000 kilowatts, single-phase $1,130,000 

Or, $94.17 per kilowatt. 

New York Central, under $90.00 per kilowatt ac- 
cording to ^Ir. Wilgus, (Proc. A. I. E. E.) 

For 5,200-kilowatt plant (estimate Parshall and Hobart) : 

Total Per Kilowatt 

Building $100,000 $19.20 

Boilers, pumps, piping, etc.. . . 62,500 12.00 about 

Exciter sets, s^vvdtchboard and 

cable 20,000 4.00 about 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 269 

Total Per Kilowatt 
4 25-cycle, 3-phase, 94 r. p. m. 

alternators 60,000 11 . 50 about 

4 engines 120,000 23.00 about 

Power-station total $362,500 $70 .00 about 

Sub-stations (according to Parshall and Hobart) : 

4 500-kilowatt rotaries $20,000 $10 . 00 

15 Static transformers 25,000 12 . 50 

Switchboard, wiring, cables, etc. 5,000 2.50 

Building 6,500 3.25 

Sub-station total $56,500 $28 . 25 

Storage batteries $70 to $110 per kilowatt on one-hour rate. 

New York subway, 45,000 kilowatts, $7,000,000 = $156 per kilowatt. 

Waterman estimated three phase at $70 per kilowatt. 

The following is taken from Gotshall's "Electric Railway Economics:'^ 

COSTS OF RECIPROCATING STEAM-ENGINE POWER STATIONS PER KILO- 
WATT 

Maximum Minimum 

Buildings $15.00 $8.00 

Foundations 3.50 1.50 

Boilers and settings. . .• 17.00 9.00 

Steam piping, covering, etc 12.00 4.00 

-Engines 32.00 20.00 

' Generators. . 21 .00 18.00 

Pumps, etc 1.00 1.00 

Switchboards, etc 4.00 1.50 

Feed-water heaters, etc 2 .00 1 .00 

Wiring conduits, wiring, etc 6.00 3.00 

Coal conveyors and coal-storage tanks. . 6.00 2.00 

Smoke stacks and flues 2 . 00 1 . 00 

Fuel economizers 4 . 50 2 . 50 

Stokers 3.00 2.50 

Ash conveyors 1.50 1.00 

Incidentals, such as concrete flooring, etc 2 . 00 2 . 00 



$132.50 $78.00 
Sub-stations $45 to $38. 

GLASGOW POWER-PLANT : ACTUAL COSTS — DAWSON 

Four 3, 500-kilowatt generators driven by 3-cylinder vertical com- 
pound Corliss engines: 

Per Kilowatt 

Steam engines $50 . 61 

Exciter engines 1 . 46 

Auxiliary engines 4 . 36 

Boilers 10 .20 



270 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Per Kilowatt 

Three-phase generators 12 . 41 

Auxiliary generators 2 . 43 

Exciter generators .97 

Static transformers 9 . 73 

Rotary converters and boosters 18 . 97 

Buildings, including smokestack 21 . 89 

Total $133.03 

APPROXIMATE COSTS OF POWER-PLANT PARTS. (dAWSON, ENGINEERING 

AND ELECTRIC TRACTION BOOK.) 

(Enghsh Prices.) 

Cost of railway generators per kilowatt $30 to $50 

Cost of steam plant, complete, Corliss engines ... 65 to 75 

Water-tube boilers 15 to 20 

Corliss engines per horse-power 25 to 40 

Lightly built engine-house per horse power $5.00 

Feed pumps and injectors per horse power 1 . 90 

Surface condenser, including air and circulating 

pumps per kilowatt $10 to $12 . 50 

Ejector condenser per kilowatt $6 . 25 . 

Power-plant apparatus is cheaper at present than when the first 
large power-plants were built. Much of the apparatus which had to be 
built especially for these plants has now become standard apparatus 
with consequent cheapening. In addition, the perfecting of the steam 
turbine has furnished a cheaper type of prime mover than was available 
at that time. Large engine-driven units cost from $30 to 150 per kilo- 
watt and smaller ones correspondingly higher. If horizontal engines are 
used instead of vertical ones, these figures may be somewhat reduced. 
Steam turbines and generators complete, but not including condensing 
apparatus, sell for from $35 in the 500-kilowatt size to about $18 for the 
very large units, per kilowatt. A steam turbine and generator can be 
generally bought for about the price of a first-class Corliss engine alone 
and the steam economy is about the same, unless very high vacuums 
are used, when the turbine is at an advantage. In addition, steam 
turbines take up less floor space and so the cost of the power-plant 
building and foundations is reduced. The high speeds at which tur- 
bines run, make the generation of current at the transmission-line volt- 
age the most feasible thing to do, so that step-up transformers at the 
power-house are done away with. We recall several small plants 
which have been built at a complete cost per power-station^ including 
buildings and all equipment and a sub-station within the power-station 
of about one-fourth the generator capacity, for from $150 to $180 per 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 271 

kilowatt. For large stations of the character employed in a terminal 

electrification, $90 per kilowatt is an ample figure. This we estimate as 

follows : 

Buildings $15.00 

Foundations 3 .00 

Boilers 15.00 

Piping 10.00 

Turbines and generators 20 .00 

Condensers 5 .00 

Pumps 1 .00 

Feed-water heaters, etc 3 .00 

Smoke stack 2 , 00 

Wiring, etc 3.00 

Switchboard 2.00 

Coal bunkers 2.00 

Coaling apparatus 3 . 00 

Water tunnels, etc 3 .00 

Miscellaneous 2 .00 

Total $89.00 

For sub-stations, $40 per kilowatt is a fair figure. 

LIGHTING AND HEATING 

Lighting will be reduced. For a 60-foot coach, thirty 16-candle- 
power lamps are employed. A watt-hour consumption of 1,500 watt- 
hours will be required and if this power is delivered to the car for 1 cent 
per kilowatt hour, this will make a cost of 1.5 cents per hour. As there 
will be no charge, practically, for attendance, train lighting will be less, 
or, at least, no more than at present. According to Street, lighting on 
elevated roads costs 12% of what it formerly did. 

Heating will cost more, if the cars are heated by electricity. An 
oil or hard coal stove could be installed for heating, h]it the probability 
is that the public will demand that electric heaters be installed in motor 
coaches. For through trains heating will have to be done from oil- 
fired furnaces carried in the electric locomotives, as is done in the New 
York Central and the New Haven locomotives. The cost of heating 
by electricity for motor coaches will not be a wholly added expenditiu'e, 
because on the very cold days, when heating is at maximum, the saving 
in condensation of steam which now takes place in the steam locomo- 
tives due to extreme cold will not be felt at the power-house and the 
power consumption for motive power in cold weather will not exceed 
that in warm weather, whereas, the coal consumption in cold weather 
in steam locomotives does exceed the summer consumption. Heft 
estimates the current required for heating a 60-foot coach, as 6 to 12 



272 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

kilowatts, (which would mean a cost of not more than 6 to 12 cents 
per horn"), and in zero weather, 18 kilowatts per horn*. The closest 
estimate of the cost of electric heating which we have seen, is one made 
by the Chicago City railway, and which appeared in the Street Railway 
Jom-nal about two years past. This follows: 

HOT-WATER AND ELECTRIC HEATING 

Electric heating per car 12 amperes 9 hours = 54 kilowatt-hours at 

.992 cents $.536 

Interest at 5% plus depreciation at 7% on $80, cost of heater, 365 

days divided by 150 days' heating season. 064. 

Hauling dead weight 360 pounds, 100 miles per day, 365 days per 

year, at . 95 cents per day of heating season 042 

Repairs 5 cents per car per day 050 

Interest 5% plus depreciation 3% on additional copper required for 

electric heaters per day per heater 038 

Cost of electrical heating per day $0 . 73 

Hot-water heaters : 

80 pounds coal at $8.00 $.32 

Interest at 5% plus depreciation 7% on $140 112 

Hauling dead weight, 1,454 pounds, 100 miles per day, 365 days in 

year, per day of heating season 168 

Repairs 10 

Attendance 10 

Total cost per day, hot-water heating $0 . 80 

It will be noted that electric heating in the case of a street-railway 
car was computed to be cheaper than hot-water heating; with trains of 
several coaches this can not be expected to hold. 

ROUND-HOUSE COSTS 

These were given by Mr. Street, in an address before the Western 

Railway Club, as follows: 

No. Locomotives Cost per 

Handled * Locomotive 

3,900.... $1.35 

1,134 1.97 

2,750 1.38 

3 100 1.20 

1.500 1.75 

Average 2,476 $1.53 

These figures do not include the cost of removing ashes from cinder- 
pits, cost of handling coalf or cost of supplying sand and operating sand- 
house, or the cost of steam heat and water. They refer in all cases to 
cost during fairly warm weather and where water was good and only 
a smaU number of boilers required washing. 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 273 

RESULTS OF ELECTRIFICATION OF ELEVATED ROADS 

Mr. J. G. White, in a paper before the International Railway Con- 
gress, gave the following statistics of the South Side Elevated and the 

Manhattan Elevated railroads: 

South Side |Manhattan 

Elevated Elevated 

Date of figures before electrification 1897 1900 

Date of figures after electrification 1899 1904 

Cost of electrical equipment, about $17,000,000 

Increase in power consumption 37% 

Gross receipts before electrification $ 695,287 $ 9,969,900 

Gross receipts after electrification 1,170,381 14,529,188 

Increase 475,094 4,559,288 

Rate of increase 68% 46% 

Operating expenses before electrification $562,258 $6,104,293 

Operating expenses after electrification 669,933 6,717,726 

Increase 107,675 613,433 

Train miles run before electrification (Manhattan 

5 cars) 10,740,183 

Train miles run after electrification (Manhattan 

6 cars) 11,000,000 

Total net earnings before electrification. . ....... $133,029 $3,865,007 

Total net earnings after electrification 500,448 7,811,462 

Increase 367,419 3,946,455 

Rate of increase 276% 102% 

Per cent excess earnings on cost equipment 23 . 2% 

Per cent operating expenses to gross expenses 

before electrification 81% 61% 

Per cent operating expenses to gross expenses 

after electrification 57% 46% 

Saving per car mile in operating expenses 9.6% 

In a paper read before the American Street and Interurban Railway 
Convention at their Cleveland convention in 1906, Mr. H. M. Brincker- 
hoff gave the following statistics regarding the operation of elevated 
railroads under steam and under electricity (quoted from Street Rail- 
way Journal): 

CHICAGO AND OAK PARK ELEVATED 

Steam Year Electric Year 

1895 1904 

Passenger cars 100 123 (inc. motors) 

Locomotives 35 42 motor cars 

Total car miles 2,721,965 4,550,799 

Total passengers hauled 9,936,450 16,005,328 

Passengers per car mile 3 . 65 3 . 52 

Rate of increase 3 . 6% 

Passengers per car per annum 99,364 130,124 

Rate of increase 23 . 0% 



274 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Steam Year Electric Year 

1895 1904 

Cost per mile $0 . 1174 $0 . 1078 

Rate of decrease 8 . 2% 

Schedule speed, miles per hour 12.5 15 

Rate of increase 22% 

Period of electric operation 8 years. 



SOUTH SIDE ELEVATED RAILROAD 

Steam Year Electric Year 

1894 1905 

Passenger cars 110 254 

Locomotives 31 196 (aU motors) 

Total car miles 5,182,598 8,230,415 

Total passengers hauled 13,587,791 32,959,752 

Passengers per car mile 2 . 52 4 Increase 52.6% 

Passengers per car per an- 
num 123,525 129,762 Increase 5.0% 

Cost per car mile $0 . 105 $0 .089 Decreasel6.0% 

Schedule speed, miles per 

hour 13.08 14.95 Increase 14.3% 

Period of electric operation 7 years. 

BROOKLYN RAPID TRANSIT (eLEVATED) 

Steam Year Electric Year 

1898 1905 

Passenger cars 430 1,002 (inc. motors) 

Locomotives 139 558 motor cars 

Total train miles 5,158,365 22,407,301 (cars only) - 

Total passengers hauled .... 44,170,810 122,166,540 

Passengers per car mile 5.2 

Passengers per car per an- 
num 102,723 121,922 Increase 18.7% 

Schedule speeds miles per 

hour 11.5 15.8 Increase 37% 

Cost per train mile $0 . 384 

Period of electric operation 6 years. 

MANHATTAN ELEVATED (nEW YORK) 

Steam Year Electric Year 

1901 1904 

Passenger cars 1,122 1,356 

Locomotives 134 833 

Total car miles 43,860,158 61,743,000 Increase 40% 

Passengers hauled 190,045,741 286,634,000 Increase 50% 

Passengers per car mile 4 . 34 4 . 65 Increase 2.15% 

Passengers per car per an- 
num 169,381 211,382 Increase 24.8% 

Cost per car mile $0 . 1198 $0 .095 Decrease 20.4% 

Schedule speed, miles per 

hour 10 . 1 15 Increase 48.5% 

Period of electric operation 3 years. 



NOTES ON ECONOMICS 275 

METROPOLITAN WEST SIDE ELEVATED 

1905 

Passenger cars 420 

Motor cars . 158 

Total car miles 11,352,358 

Passengers hauled 46,186,753 

Schedule speed, miles per hour 15.4 

Cost per car mile $0 .0931 

Period of electric operation 10 years. 

Mr. Brinckerhoff stated that in all cases a reduced cost was obtained 
despite higher speeds, which meant an increased power consumption of 
30% to 50% In the ensuing periods wages had gone up 15% and coal 
20% and the usage was harder because of higher speeds, yet a saving was 
shown. He referred to the operation of steam trains over the Brook- 
lyn Bridge and stated that the capacity had been increased 100% by 
taking off the steam switch-engines. Speaking of the junction of the 
Ninth and Sixth Avenue elevated railroads in New York City where the 
Ninth Avenue line approaches the junction on a grade and difficulty 
was had under steam operation because of the trains stalling thereon, 
he states that it was found difficult to hold a 70-second headway imder 
steam operation and now 50% heavier trains are run on a 33-second 
headway. He further stated that in the case of the Metropolitan West 
Side Elevated, motor cars are only out of service 3% of the year for 
overhauling. 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 

H. H. EVANS 

There are at present 26 roads running trains into Chicago terminals. 
In addition there are belt, transfer, terminal, and industrial lines which 
have some or all of their trackage within the city. These run no 
passenger trains but occupy themselves principally in transferring 
freight: The Chicago terminals are six in number and are grouped 
around the edge of the business district on two sides of a square. 
From one to six lines use each terminal. In general the terminal is 
owned by one railroad or by a terminal association, and the other 
roads use the terminal trackage to outlying portions of the city where 
they enter their own lines. Entry into the terminal is under varying 
agreements. In some cases the entering road has trackage rights for 
which some form of compensation is paid. This is either a flat com- 
pensation, a compensation per mile of trackage used or a compensation 
per train mile. In other cases the trains are operated outright by the 
terminal road for a proportionate share of the earnings. 

All trains finish or originate their runs in Chicago — no train passes 
through the city. The same is true of freight. At present a large 
portion of the through freight is brought into Chicago and transferred 
within the city. There is a large clearing yard southwest of the city 
but it is not in general use. Bringing all this through freight into the 
city adds materially to the smoke nuisance. If it could be transferred 
through a system of clearing yards outside the city limits, a reduced 
expense for handling would be afforded the railroads, a certain amount 
of congestion of terminal facihties would be avoided, generally about 
a day would be saved on through shipments in passing through Chicago, 
and the city would be the cleaner. In the past there have been move- 
ments to provide a system of outside clearing yards, but progress has 
not been made, owing to the reluctance of certain roads to go into the 
scheme. We would suggest that the city offer whatever aid it con- 
sistently can in getting the railroad companies to adopt a system of this 
kind. This would help the smoke situation and also obviate the au- 
tumnal freight congestion in Chicago. 

The railroads, starting from their terminals near the center of the 
city, diverge almost radially. There are numerous interconnections for 

276 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 277 

the transfer of freight : — a belt line within the city, an outer belt line, 
and an extreme outer belt line starting from industrial towns in north 
western Indiana and sweeping a broad circle with the city as a center. 
In general, the tracks within the city are elevated or shortly will be, 
so that the electrification problem, so far as physical conditions are con- 
cerned, is greatly simplified. With the completion of the Grand Cross- 
ing elevation, there will be few crossings in the city, of densely used 
tracks, at grade. 

Terminals are as follows : — 

the chicago and northwestern (corner op wells and kinzie 

streets) 

Is used alone by the Chicago and Northwestern trains. A new terminal 
station is being built at present for this road. The passenger terminal 
is used for both through and suburban passenger trains, the suburban 
tracks being at the side of the through tracks and a separate portion of 
the station being used therefor. The trackage coming into this terminal 
within the city limits of Chicago, comprises 303.23 miles, of which 
68.89 miles are first and second main track and 234.34 miles, yards and 
sidings. The Northwestern operates a heavy suburban service to 
points north and northwest — the heaviest in the city, with the excep- 
tion of the Illinois Central. In round numbers, there are 400 trains 
a day, at this terminal. 

Freight terminals are located as follows: 

Wisconsin Division, '^ in" Corner Grand Avenue and Jefferson Street: 
*'out" same. 

Galena Division, ''in" and "out," No. 2. North State Street. 

AH divisions ''in" and "out," Corner Sixteenth and Jefferson 
Streets. 

Wood Street, corner Oakley Avenue and Fourteenth Street. 

Fortieth Street, "out" corner Chicago Avenue and Forty-sixth 
Avenue. 

North Avenue, " out," 166 West North Avenue. 

Deering, " out," Diversey Avenue near Lincoln Street. 

Union Stock Yards, " out," corner Exchange and Center Avenues. 

UNION STATION (CORNER CANAL AND ADAMS STREETS) 

This station is owned by the Pennsylvania railroad. It is used 
jointly by the Chicago & Alton, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, Chicago, 
Milwaukee & St. Paul, Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne & Chicago, and the Pitts- 



278 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

burgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis — the two latter being Penn- 
sylvania properties. There are about 240 schedule freight and passen- 
ger trams per day on this terminal. Both through passenger trains 
and suburban trains are run from it, the suburban service being oper- 
ated on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul and to some extent by 
the BurUngton, and the Pennsylvania. Coming into this terminal 
there are 549.91 miles of trackage within the city of which 169.94 
miles are first and second main track and 379.97 miles, yards and 
sidings. Freight-houses are located as follows : 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, "in" and ''out" corner Canal and 
Harrison Streets. 

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, " in" and " out," corner Fulton and 
Union Streets. '' In" and '' out" corner Western, California and Grand 
Avenues. 

Chicago & Alton " in" and " out, " West Van Buren Street and west 
side of the Chicago river. 

Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis ''in" and "out," corner 
Halsted Street and Carrol Avenue. " Out," corner Eighteenth Street 
and Western Avenue. 

Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne & Chicago "in" and "out," No. 2 West 
Madison Street, west side Chicago river. " Out," corner Eighteenth 
Street and Stewart Avenue. 

GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT 
(Corner Harrison Street and Fifth Avenue.) 

This terminal is owned by the Chicago Terminal Transfer Company, 
which is as present in the hands of a receiver. The Baltimore & Ohio 
is the guiding spirit of the Terminal company. The Terminal com- 
pany was organized June 4, 1897, on a reorganization of the Chicago & 
Northern Pacific Railroad Company. On April 16, 1906, a receiver 
was appointed on a suit to foreclose a mortgage on the property, * the 
interest thereon having been in default for two years. A decree of fore- 
closure was entered February 20, 1907, pursuant to which the property 
was advertised to be sold May 3, 1907. By an arrangement between the 
creditors, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company was directed to 
deposit with the trustees of the mortgage, a sum sufficient to pay the 
amount due on the bonds and coupons. The Baltimore & Ohio made 
this deposit, whereupon all further proceedings under the decree of fore- 
closure were stayed. The Terminal company operates 250 miles of track 
in Chicago and vicinity, a large part of its mileage being outside the 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 279 

city limits. The terminal is used by the Chicago Terminal Transfer 
Company, operating a subm'ban service to Chicago Heights, and by 
the Baltimore & Ohio, the Chicago Great Western, and the Pere Mar- 
quette. The terminal is used by about 60 schedule trains per day, of 
which 36 are passenger. The suburban service out of the station is 
very hght. The station is the least used of any in Chicago. Coming 
into it there are 142.55 miles of trackage within the city limits, of which 
50.10 miles are first and second main track and the balance in yard 
tracks and sidings. The freight-houses are located as follows : 

Baltimore & Ohio, ''in" and ''out" freight-houses, Polk Street, 
east side of Chicago river. 

Chicago Great Western, "in" and "out," corner Franklin and 
Harrison Streets. 

Chicago Terminal Transfer "in" and "out," corner Ogden and 
Western Avenues. 

Pere Marquette "in" and "out," corner Frankhn and Harrison 
Streets. 

LA SALLE STREET STATION 
(Corner La Salle and Van Buren Streets.) 

This terminal is owned jointly by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pa- 
cific and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern. In round numbers 
there are 180 schedule trains per day in and out of this terminal. It is 
used by the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, Chicago, Indiana and Southern, 
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, Lake Shore & Michigan Southern and 
the New York, Chicago & St. Louis. The Rock Island has a. heavy 
suburban service between Chicago and Blue Island and a light one to 
Joliet. The L. S. and C. & E. I. maintains a light suburban service. 
In addition, a heavy through passenger traffic is maintained. The 
freight-houses are located as follows: 

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, "in" and "out," corner Taylor 
and Sherman Streets. 

Chicago & Eastern IlHnois "in" and "out," corner Twelfth and 
Clark Streets. 

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern "in" and "out," corner Polk 
and La Salle Streets. 

New York, Chicago and St. Louis " in" and " out" corner Clark and 
Taylor Streets. 

Belonging to lines entering this terminal there are within the city 
limits of Chicago 236.41 miles of trackage, of which 156.06 miles are 
first and second main track and 180.35 miles are yards and sidings. 



280 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

DEARBORN STREET STATION 
(Comer^Dearbom and Polk Streets.) 

This station is owned by the Chicago & Western Indiana railway 
which operates in connection with the Belt railway of Chicago. All 
trackage into the terminal is the property of the terminal company. 
The following roads enter the terminal : 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe; Chicago & Western Indiana; Chicago, 
IndianapoHs & Louisville; Chicago & Erie; Grand Trmik; Wabash. 

These roads use the terminal trackage for the following distances: 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, 1 mile; Chicago, IndianapoHs & 
Louisville, 20 miles; Erie, 20 miles; Grand Trunk, 5 miles; Wabash, 20 
miles. 

Freight-houses are located as follows: 

''In" and ''out," corner Twelfth Street and State. 

Chicago, Indianapolis & LouisviUe, "in" and "out," corner Taylor 
Street and Custom House Court. 

Erie, " in" and " out, " corner Fourteenth and Clark Streets. 

Grand Trunk, "in" and " out," corner Taylor Street and Plymouth 
Court. 

Wabash "in" and '^ out," corner Twelfth Street and Plymouth 
Court. 

Approximately 150 schedule trains enter and leave this station 
daily of which 120 are passenger. The lines entering this station have 
an aggregate of 288.94 miles of trackage within the city limits, of which 
90.48 miles are first and second main track and 198.46 miles are yards 
and sidings. 

CENTRAL STATION 
(Comer Twelfth Street and Park Row.) 

This station is owned by the Illinois Central, together with all track- 
age into it. The station is used by the Illinois Central, the Chicago, 
Cincinnati & Louisville; Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, 
Michigan Central, and the Wisconsin Central. There are 100 trains a 
day, counting freights. In addition, a suburban terminal is maintained 
by the Illinois Central at the foot of Randolph Street, into which 262 
trains per day enter or leave. This is the heaviest subm'ban service 
in the city, and as the suburban trackage is a part of the terminal 
trackage, it is the busiest terminal in the city. "In" and "out" 
freight-houses for all entering roads are located at the foot of South 
Water Street and the lake front. The trackage entering the terminal 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 281 

within the city limits of Chicago (and including some trackage outside 
the city limits which it would be good policy to electrify, should 
electrification be undertaken) amounts to 325 miles for the Illinois 
Central and to 41.93 miles for the Michigan Central, 7.57 miles of 
the latter being first and second main track and 34.36 miles yards 
and sidings. The other roads entering the terminal do not own mileage 
within the city hmits. 

In addition to the roads entering the passenger terminals, there are a 
number of roads having some mileage within the city Hmits which are 
in the nature of connecting or industrial roads. The largest of these is, 
of course, the Chicago Junction Railways and Union Stock Yards Com- 
pany, operating the tracks within the Stock Yards. The outside tracks 
of this company were disposed of last year to the Indiana Harbor 
Belt railway. This is owned by the New York Central and in elec- 
trification plans should be so considered. In general, these lines are 
either controlled by railroads which operate within the city limits, or 
else their mileage within the city limits is inconsequential. Some 
of them are : the Englewood Connecting railway in 59th Street, Chicago, 
4.55 miles of track, leased by the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. 
Louis; the South Chicago & Southern, operated under lease by the 
Pennsylvania railroad; the Chicago & Calumet terminal, leased to West- 
ern Steel Car and Foundry Company; the Elgin, JoUet and Eastern 
about 13 miles of trackage within the city limits, this in the shape 
of yard trackage in an industrial section; the Chicago, Lake Shore 
& Eastern 5 miles of trackage within the city limits, in the vicinity 
of the Illinois Steel Company's plant. These two latter are owned 
by the U. S. Steel Corporation. The Calumet- Western is a connecting 
track owned jointly by the Pennsylvania, the Chicago, Rock Island & 
Pacific, the Michigan Central and the Chicago Junction. The Illi- 
nois Northern line extends from Hoyne Av. to Elston Av. and com- 
prises 64,686 feet within the city limits. The Chicago & Southwestern 
railroad has only 2,273 feet of trackage within the city. The Man- 
ufacturers' Jimction line is an industrial line of which only 6,100 feet lie 
within the city limits. 

Statistical matter regarding the roads entering Chicago will be foimd 
in Appendix C. 

In dealing with the electrification of the Chicago railroads, the roads 
should preferably be considered in groups each comprising all the roads 
entering a certain terminal. Should electrification be carried out, it would 
undoubtedly be more economical to electrify all the roads entering a 



282 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

terminal, and it would certainly lead to many complications of opera- 
tion should only a portion of the roads entering a terminal electrify. 
It would probably be found advantageous for the railroads entering a 
terminal to form a terminal association for the electrical conduct of the 
terminal, similar to the terminal associations which have been formed 
in the cities where union passenger stations have been built. Such an 
association would have its electrical transmission lines and cables in 
common, and a great deal of the trackage belonging to different roads 
but to the same terminal, would be electrically tied together. It is prob- 
able that preferably the electrical locomotives running upon the terminal 
would be owned by a holding company and used in common. With each 
road owning its own electrical locomotives, we can conceive of a locomo- 
tive owned by the X. Y. &. Z. system waiting at the end of the terminal 
zone for six or seven hours for its train, with incident loss, and mean- 
while five or six trains of the P. D. & Q. system going past, upon which 
the locomotive might be utilized. The same with the power system. 
Small power-plants cannot make current at a works-cost under eight- 
tenths of a cent, and the very small ones, under IJ^ cents. With the 
extremely uneven load imposed by one railroad, these costs would be 
further increased. A power-plant common to all the roads entering the 
terminal could be of such size and would have a sufficiently even load to 
manufacture current at a works-cost of about four-tenths of a cent per 
kilowatt-hour. Should all of the railroads eventually electrify, a large 
central power-plant to handle all the roads would probably work a still 
further advantage, as the roads handling a large suburban service would 
materially help out the character of the load for roads handling princi- 
pally freight. The roads which do not enter the passenger terminals, 
in general, are either affiliated with the roads that do, or are directly 
controlled by them, so that their electrification would follow a general 
electrification. Their efficiency is at present so low, on account of the 
intermittent employment of their equipment, that it would probably 
be more economical to electrically equip them, purchasing the current, 
as has been done with the industrial roads around a great many plants 
in the United States — notably around smelters and mines. 

For the roads which merely touch the edge of the city, it is not 
believed that the harm they do at present will justify the electrification 
of these short sections, since, owing to their necessitating a change in the 
method of operation of merely the end of the road, disorganization of 
their working will ensue and harm to the road be worked without gain 
to the public. 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 283 

This leaves, then, first to be considered, the electrification of six 
large terminals, each with somewhere near the same contributory 
trackage and each controlled either by a terminal company or by some 
dominant interest. It is probable, then, that after overcoming a mod- 
erate number of obstructions, the terminal company or the company 
owning the station could secm^e the co-operation of other roads entering 
the terminal in an electrification scheme. The traffic into the terminals 
is reasonably dense and on the increase. Four of the terminals have a 
respectable suburban service which should grow larger from year to 
3^ear. With proper handling of their suburban facilities, it is probable 
that each of the terminal group could induce the settlement of a popu- 
lace to support a suburban ser^dce along its road in suburban towns 
and in the end build up a large suburban or local traffic. 

Each of the systems entering Chicago, at some portion or other of 
its route, is restricted to the use of two tracks. Thus, the Northwestern 
has only two tracks across the bridge over the Chicago River at the foot 
of its station. The railroads entering the Harrison Street station are 
also constricted to two tracks over a bridge. The heavy Illinois Cen- 
tral suburban traffic, owing to the use of one track for storage, is entirely 
carried for a short distance on one track. With the growth of the city, 
the terminals must inevitably become congested. With the growth of 
the city there will be a growth of land values, so that the amplification 
of terminals will become increasingly expensive. Eventually, in order 
to get capacity, the railroads will be compelled to resort to electrical 
working of terminals. Meanwhile, it seems likely that for certain of 
them electrification would net a saving. For all of them, where traffic 
is dense enough for electrification not to mean a positive loss, it would 
seem advisable to resort to electrification in order to build up a 
suburban traffic which will become increasingly remunerative. 

Owing to the cheap price of coal, it happens that the absolute money- 
saving in fuel consumption (from which the major profits of electrifi- 
cation are reached in the majority of instances) will be small in Chicago. 
At present, in most places where electrification has been carried out, 
coal is about .$2.00 per ton higher than in Chicago. It is improbable 
that the people of Chicago will put up with the smoke from the locomo- 
tives much longer and eventually the railroads will be forced to adopt 
either a smokeless fuel, that is, coke or anthracite, or else to resort to 
electrification. Coke will cost about $2.00 a ton more than coal, so that 
then the economic conditions will be sensibly equal to those in other 
places. Electrification will then be the cheaper of the two with all the 



\ 



284 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

railroads. It is only a matter of time before this will come about 
and it might be as well to take time by the forelock. 

We have not gone into the details of the retm-ns to be expected from 
electrification with all the roads. To do so properly would require a 
minute investigation] into the traffic handled by each road and the 
expenditures therefor, which would necessarily extend over several 
months. We have, however, made considerable examination of the 
Chicago terminals to observe the physical conditions which electrifica- 
tions would meet with in Chicago, and have met with nothing which 
would make electrification physically impossible or inexpedient. It is 
simply a question of economics and, we believe, of larger economics 
— not a mere demonstration of saving in train handling. The larger 
capacity of terminals, the added comfort of the pubhc and the possi- 
bihty of utilization of whole blocks of down-town property, now occu- 
pied by terminals, for business and manufacturing purposes by building 
structures over the electrified tracks, would seem to us the more impor- 
tant considerations. 

We have concentrated our investigation upon the Illinois Central 
terminal. We have done this, not because of any feeling one way or 
the other toward the Illinois Central, but because the electrification of 
that road seemed to offer the most fertile field in Chicago, and mainly 
because of the large interest of the public in getting rid of the smoke 
from this railroad. We have believed, also, that by making an investi- 
gation of the Illinois Central, we could reason from our conclusions 
what might be advisable in the case of other railroads in the city trav- 
ersing residence districts and operating a high-class suburban service. 
Concentration upon the Illinois Central has also been largely brought 
about because of Mr. Harahan's position that the electrification of his 
road was a question demanding detailed investigation. We have devoted 
a great deal of time to an investigation of existent electrifications, 
because Mr. Harahan, in his letter, took the ground that electrification 
is still experimental. We have found that it has passed entirely 
beyond the experimental stage. 

In addition to a thorough examination of the physical character of 
the road, we have prepared an estimate of its cost and the probable sav- 
ings, and we are led to the conclusion that in addition to being feasible 
electrification would be desirable. The Ilhnois Central has about 325 
miles of trackage from points at which the suburban traffic originates, 
to the downtown terminal. It has a station at Twelfth Street and 
Park Row into which through trains of the Wisconsin Central, the 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 285 

Michigan Central, the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the "Big Four," 
and its own trains come. In addition, it has a subui'ban terminal at 
Randolph Street from which a suburban traffic, said to be the largest 
in the country, is worked. The north and south trackage is the terminal 
of a large double-track line from the Great Lakes to the Gulf, and there 
is a section turning west at Sixteenth Street, and running to Omaha 
and other Western points. Above Twelfth Street there are large freight 
terminal yards which are used by the railroads which use the terminal 
trackage. The tracks start with a maze of freight tracks at the foot of 
South Water Street. At the western side of these at Randolph Street 
there is a suburban terminal. The tracks gradually constrict to Van 
Buren Street. From thence to Park Row a number of tracks ru)i, 
including suburban tracks. At the latter point, the tracks broaden 
out to form the passenger-terminal trackage and passenger and freight 
storage ^-ards, which converge again at Sixteenth Street and below. 
From Sixteenth Street there are six tracks to a point just below 
Thirty-ninth Street, where the tracks broaden to 7, then to 8. In 
addition, there are tracks to the Twenty-sixth Street round-house and 
sidings to a coal yard and breweries. The main tracks between Six- 
teenth and Forty-third Streets, are used as follows, numbering from 
the west : 

Track 1. For south-bound local suburban trains. 

Track 2. For north-boimd local suburban trains. 

Track 3. For south-bound passenger and through freight trains. 

Track 4. For north-bound through passenger and freight trains. 

Track 5. For south-bound express suburban trains. 

Track 6. For north-bound express suburban trains. 

The main tracks between Forty-third and Sixty-seventh Streets, are 
designated as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, and are used as follows: 

No. 1. For south-bound local suburbans. 

No. 2. For north-bound local suburbans. 

No. 3. For south-bound through passengers. 

No. 4. For north-bound through passengers. 

No. 5. For south-bound freight trains. 

No. 6. For north-bound freight trains. 

No. 7. For south-bound express suburbans. 

No. 8. For north-bound express subm-bans. 
At Sixty-seventh Street, there is a branch running southeast a distance 
of 4.5 miles to South Chicago. This is a double-track line and is used 



286 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

for suburban and freight service. At Sixty-seventh Street, the tracks 
narrow to six, which are used as f oUows : 

No. 1. For south-bound suburban trains. 

No. 2. For north-bound subui'ban trains. 

No. 3. For south-bound through passenger rtains. 

No. 4. For north-bound through passenger trains. 

No. 5. For south-bound transfer freight trains. 

No. 6. For north-bound transfer freight trains. 
Between Seventy-sixth and Eighty-fifth Streets, there are four tracks 
used as follows: 

No. 1. For south-bound suburban trains. 

No. 2. For north-bound suburban trains. 

No. 3. For south-bound through passenger and freights. 

No. 4. For north-bound through passenger and freights. 
Between Eighty-fifth Street and Burnside, there are six tracks used as 
follows : 

No. 1. For south-bound suburban trains. 

No. 2. For north-bound suburban trains. 

No. 3. For south-bound through passenger and freight trains. 

No. 4. For north-bound through passenger and freight trains. 

No. 5. For south-bound through freight destined for Fordham Yard. 

No. 6. For freight trains going to the north end of Fordham Yard. 
Between Burnside and Blue Island Junction there are four tracks used 
as follows: 

No. 1. For south-bound subui'ban trains. 

No. 2. For north-bound subui'ban trains. 

No. 3. For south-bound through passenger and freight trains. 

No. 4. For north-bound through passenger and freight trains. 
At Blue Island Junction a single-track line goes southwest to Blue Island, 
distant 3.8 miles, over which a suburban service is operated. From 
Blue Island Junction south to the Calumet river there are four tracks 
used respectively : 

For south-boimd passenger, suburban, and second-class freight trains. 

For north-bound passenger, subm^ban, and second-class freight trains. 

For south-bound third and inferior class freight trains. 

For north-boimd third and inferior class freight trains. 
From the Calumet river south to Flossmoor, at the end of the suburban 
section, there are two tracks only. 

The track running west from Sixteenth Street, used by the Freeport 
division, is a double-track line and is reached by an incline. 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 287 

Besides the freight terminal yard at the foot of South Water Street 
and the passenger terminal at Twelfth Street, there is a large working 
yard at Fordham, 11.43 miles south of Randolph Street, comprising 
42 miles of track; a yard at Burnside, comprising 33.5 miles, wherein 
are located the shops, the yard being used mainly for equipment storage 
and repair; and a yard at Wildwood, 16.28 miles south of Randolph 
Street. There is a small yard containing about 3.5 miles of track at 
the end of the South Chicago branch, the South Chicago branch being 
incorporated as a separate railroad. There are about 2.5 miles of yard 
track and sidings on the Blue Island railway, which is the legal desig- 
nation of the Blue Island branch. On the Freeport division, there are 
1.5 miles of sidings within the city limits. In addition, there are small 
sidings, connections to industrial plants, and team tracks at various 
places along the length of the road within the city limits. 

The Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville joins the Illinois Central track- 
age at Riverdale, 17.22 miles from Randolph Street and runs the balance 
of the way over the Illinois Central tracks. 

The Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis owns no trackage 
within the city limits. It has its trains hauled by the Illinois Central 
over the latter's right of way, from Kankakee to Chicago, in consideration 
of a percentage of the business. 

The Michigan Central operates its trains from Kensington (14.54 
miles) mto Chicago, over the Illinois Central tracks. Its trackage rights 
date back to 1853, when it advanced the Illinois Central the necessary 
money for the construction of their line from Kensington to a point 
about Sixteenth Street, in order that it might enter the city from Ken- 
sington over these tracks. From Kensington to the city limits, the 
Michigan Central operates over its own right of way, owning 20,008 
feet main track, 19,977 feet of second track and 181,331 feet of siding. 
Its yards are at Kensington. 

The Wisconsin Central trains come on the Freeport-division track- 
age of the Illinois Central at Harlem Junction. They have trackage 
rights over the Illinois Central under a 99-year lease from South Water 
Street, Chicago, to Harlem Junction, 14.37 miles. 



288 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



The attached table shows the train movement over this terminal 
system: 



Suburban 



Between 

Randolph and Wood- 
lawn 

Randolph and Sixty- 
seventh Street 

Randolph and Grand 
Crossing 

Randolph and Bumside. 

Randolph and Kensing- 
ton 

Randolph and Harvey. . 

Randolph and Home- 
wood 

Randolph and South 
Chicago 

Randolph and West 
Pullman 

Randolph and Blue 
Island 

Randolph and Floss- 
moor 

Kensington and Blue 
Island 

Twelfth Street and 
Burnside 

Woodlawn and Floss- 
moor 

Total 



Q 



Week Days 



Local 



N. S 



33 



1 
14 



2 
10 

5 

2 
1 
2 



34 

2 

2 
13 

1 
1 



Express 



N. S 



5 

1 

23 

lb 

12 
9 



1* 

4 

1 
24 

lb 

14 



Sundays 



Local 



N. S, 



22 

10 
11 



22 

10 
11 



Remarks 



(a) 1 train less each 
way Saturday 



(b) Saturday only 



72 72 59 58 47 47 



Through 


a 

m 

s 


Daily 
Passenger 


Sunday 
Passenger 


Daily 

Freight 


Sunday 
Freight 


Remarks 




N. 


S. 


N. 


S. 


N. 


S. 


N. 

5 

2 

'2 

2* 


S. 




1. C. Chgo. & New 
Orleans line 

I. C. Freeport Div. . 

I. C. Flossmoor and 
Fordham 




9 
6 

3 
10 

2 
4 
5 


9 
6 

3 
10 

2 
4 
5 


8 
5 

2 

8^ 

2 
4 
3 


8 
5 

2 

7 

2 
4 
3 


6° 
4 

2 
'2 

"2 


6 
5 

5d 

*2 
'3 


3 

4 

3 

*i 
i 


(c) 1 train less 
on Monday 

(d) I train less 
on Monday 


I. C. Addison Passen- 
ger 




Michigan Central .... 
C. C. & L 


(e) 1 train less 
on Monday 


C.C. C. &St. L 

Wisconsin Central .... 


(f) 1 train less 
on Monday 



Total, 



39 39 32 31 16 21 11 12 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 289 

THE THROUGH PASSENGER BUSINESS OF THE ILLINOIS CENTRAL 

TERMINAL 

The through passenger service runs into the Twelfth Street depot. 
This depot is skirted by the suburban service. A small fraction of the 
freight service traverses it. From it there come and go 36 trains each 
way a day. Of these, six are Illinois Central trains which go west at 
Sixteenth Street; five are Wisconsin Central, following the same route; 
ten are Michigan Central trains leaving the Illinois Central tracks at 
Kensington; two are Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville trains leaving the 
lUinois Central tracks at Riverdale; four are Cleveland, Cincinnati, 
Chicago & St. Louis trains, using the Illinois Central tracks to a point 
near Kankakee, and the remainder are Illinois Central, Chicago division, 
trains. The Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville has a trackage contract. 
The Wisconsin Central and the Michigan Central have trackage arrange- 
ments with the Illinois Central, and their trains are drawn by their own 
engines. The Big Four gets its traction from the Illinois Central. 

The Main line trains receive and discharge passengers at eight points 
within the terminal zone. Twelfth Street to Kensington. The western 
lines make two stops. Twelfth Street and Halsted Street. All of these 
trains are the usual type of heavy passenger trains, carrying mail, 
express, day and sleeping car passengers, and running dining cars in 
about the usual proportions. 

Generally speaking, the trains are not as heavy as the passenger- 
train units running from Chicago to the northwest. They are heavier 
than the swiftest imits running to the east. They average about like 
the New York Central into New York City. As these trains are for 
locomotive hauling after they reach the limits of the electric zone, the 
heavy unit must be maintained. They require a type of electric engine 
that is now in fairly general use. This engine costs about twice as 
much as a steam locomotive per horse-power. 

Its advantages are: (a) lessened cost of upkeep ($0.05 per train 
mile less) ; (6) fewer days in shop; (c) lessened cost of cleaning; (d) sav- 
ing of cost of getting up steam; (e) saving of cost of steam in boilers 
when work is done; (/) greater draw-bar pull. 

(The Port Huron engines will start a 1,000-ton train up a 2% grade 
from a dead stop without backing for slack. They will pull a 1,000- ton 
train and push another 1,000-ton train on the flat. The strength of pull 
is not limited to the slipping-point on the rails nor is the force applied 
to one point on the wheel. With a steam locomotive this point is fairly 



290 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

near the axle and therefore not most advantageously placed. Its 
efficiency is varying always with the position of the wheel, reaching 
zero when the piston is on center.) 

ig) Greater acceleration and greater speed. (Several minutes will 
be gained getting to Kensington by reason of the eight stops. Anyone 
who has witnessed a suburban train run around Illinois Central No. 5 
by reason of the quick acceleration of the former and the slow accelera- 
tion of the latter will understand this point. The piston of a locomo- 
tive engine comes to a dead stop twice in each revolution of the drive 
wheel. The force of electricity is continuous and even.) 

(h) Greater efficiency imder adverse weather conditions. (Wilgus's 
report on the New York Central locomotive says: ^^The locomotive is 
a peculiarly efficient and powerful machine. Although weighing 94.5 
tons, complete, as compared with the 171-ton weight of the heaviest 
steam passenger locomotives in use by the company, its normal rating 
of 2,200 horse-power is practically twice that of its rival; it has 763^ 
tons less weight to haul about, thus effecting a saving of 45 % for energy 
in moving dead tonnage; its concentrated weight per driving axle, 
34,250 pounds, is 27% less than that of the steam locomotive, without 
decreasing the total driver weight available for traction; it is capable 
of nmning at will in either direction, without decreasing the total driver 
weight available for traction; it is capable of running at will in either 
direction, without the delays and expense of going to the turn-tables; 
it occupies Httle more than half the track space of the steam locomo- 
tive — an important advantage in terminals — and it is much more 
quickly started and stopped.") 

The present schedule requires about 42 engine hours in each 24 hours 
for both ways; 21 engine hours in and 21 engine hours out. The most 
advantageous arrangement of schedules, then, from the engine stand- 
point alone would demand the time of less than 2 engines. Train 
schedules are not arranged on this basis, however, and 7 engines would 
be required under the present schedule or slight modifications thereof. 
These would be operated by 21 motormen. 

A peculiarity exists in the western service of the Illinois Central 
and all the service of the Wisconsin Central. The line turning west at 
Sixteenth Street is required to reach a 20-foot elevation before getting 
to Michigan Boulevard. The original plan provided for a grade begin- 
ning north of Twelfth Street, placing the track just east of the train 
shed and just above the track level at the shed and gaining the eleva- 
tion by a 2% grade on a curve leading from the east side of the tracks 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 291 

at Twelfth Street to the west side of the tracks and headed west at Six- 
teenth Street. This did not prove satisfactory, so passenger trains now 
start from the shed and make the old roadway by about a 3% grade on 
a sharp cm*ve. This generally requires the services of a pusher engine. 
An electric engine would save this expense, but what is probably better 
still, the greatly cramped quarters of the present Twelfth Street Station 
would be made ample for years to come by double-decking the shed and 
sending the west-bound trains out from the second floor, doing away 
with the present grade for passenger business. 

The advantages of electric traction for through passenger traffic are 
largely covered under the head of general aspects. Summarized, 
they are: 

1. Freedom from smoke. 

2. Economy of coal. 

3. Better control. 

4. Greater acceleration. 

5. Better efficiency in stopping and starting, economy included. 

6. Greater pulling capacity. 

7. Greater speed. 

8. Greater economy under a varying load factor. 

9. Lesser upkeep on engine. 

10. A shorter schedule. 

11. Lesser engine- ton mileage. 

12. Lesser dead rims for engine. 

13. Lesser round-house cost. 

14. Lesser storage track required. 

15. Greater uniformity of efficiency in stormy weather. 

16. The suburban service being electrified other services on the 
same track should be. 

17. Greater use of the Twelfth Street station. 
Against it would be : 

1. The greater fixed charge. 

2. The trouble of changing engines at, say, Flossmoor, Kensington, 
and Riverside. 

3. The trouble of readjusting the runs and the general methods. 

4. The uncertainty relative to electrifying the freight terminals 
and the disadvantage of two kinds of traction in the terminal zone. 

The first point is discussed elsewhere. 

The time lost in changing engines at the margin of the terminal 
zone would be quickly recovered. 



292 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Nos. 3 and 4 are probably the controlling objections at the present 
time. That officials trained in locomotive traction, and masters of their 
business, should hesitate to embark in another, even that they should 
distrust their own judgment as to another, is but natural. 

Perhaps no better summary of the entire question can be found than 
the experience of the New York Central, and this in spite of the fact 
that their equipment was planned to carry a passenger and freight load, 
and up to the present moment the road is using only its passenger 
service to earn fixed charges. 

SUBURBAN SERVICE OF THE ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD 

The suburban service runs from Randolph Street on the north to 
Flossmoor on the south, with three spurs now in operation and a fourth 
just ready to begin. The western service leaves the main line near Six- 
teenth Street and runs to Addison, a distance of 25 miles. There are 
but four trains a day over this line, making it a local rather than a sub- 
urban service. 

The remaining services now in operation use four tracks to Sixty- 
seventh Street, 8.4 miles, except from a point just south of Van Buren 
Street to a point at Randolph Street, .83 miles, where there are two 
tracks, and a short neck at Randolph Street where use is made of 
but one track. The two east tracks are reserved for an express service 
running to Hyde Park, 6.57 miles. All four of these tracks are exclu- 
sively suburban in every division of their service. 

We have not been able to get a financial statement of this service. 
We understand that the Interstate Commerce Commission has 
requested it and that the officials have it. It should be easily deter- 
minable, since its earnings are kept absolutely separate and its opera- 
tion and upkeep is rarely joint with any other arm of the lUinois Central 
service. 

Southeast of Sixty-seventh Street there is a two-track line, 4.51 miles 
to South Chicago. This track is also used for freight. From Sixty- 
seventh Street to Blue Island Jimction, 6.74 miles, there are two sub- 
urban tracks not used for other purposes. From Blue Island Junction 
to Blue Island, 3.83 miles, is a single-track road used for all purposes. 
The suburban service is continued over the four-track system to 
Calumet Junction and then over the two-track system to Flossmoor, 
24.92 miles from Randolph Street. 

The Kensington & Eastern will run an electrically-hauled suburban 
service from South Bend through Gary to Kensington, where it will, 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 293 

for the present, transfer passengers to the regular Illinois Central 
service. 

The table of train movement before given shows the amomit of ser- 
vice given on these different lines. These services can be advanta- 
geously studied separately. 

The Woodlawn service is local. It is usually done with two-car 
trains with side-loading doors. There is a train out every five minutes 
during the rush. The service is every twenty minutes at the laxest 
times. There is no service from midnight to the early morning. In this 
service under locomotive traction there are six elements of bad economy. 

1. It piles up cars, locomotives, and crews down town in the morn- 
ing and outside in the evening. The Randolph Street yard cannot 
stand much of this so there is a good deal of dead hauling. Were the 
locomotives eliminated and the cars hauled as multiple-unit electric 
trains, space would be saved and dead hauling would be lessened. 

2. Locomotive crews are paid by the mile and are given a certain 
number of miles a day. This sends an engine over different suburban 
divisions of the road and means ineffectiveness and interest-charge 
loss on a locomotive engine under steam. 

3. To haul a two-car train with a locomotive engine is uneconomical. 

4. Electric traction would permit of greater frequency of trains 
during all hours of the day. 

5. The efficiency of the single track just south of Randolph Street 
gauges the efficiency of all suburban tracks from the terminal at the 
north to a south point about Twelfth Street. Locomotive traction 
impairs the efficiency of this single track. 

6. North of Thirty-first Street the neighbors do not contribute 
much to the support of the service north of them. Douglass and Oak- 
land are moderate contributors. From Forty-third Street to Sixty-third 
Street is the cream. The dirt and noise of the railroad has prevented 
a proper development of the residence use of the first two thousand feet 
back from the lake. If this were clean country, its residence use would 
increase. The rich Forty-third Street patronage and in lesser measure 
that of Forty-seventh Street is now being divided by the electric traction 
of the street and elevated lines. Into the productive country between 
Forty-seventh Street and Fifty-seventh Street some competition will 
come unless improvements in service forestall it. The competition at 
Sixty- third Street is sharp. A better service would add a few blocks 
to the radius of availability of the trunk line and build a better clientele 
for the feeders. 



294 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

This part of the Illinois Central suburban service is in reality a local 
transportation service. It has demonstrated the potentiality of a rail- 
road to determine the direction of growth of a city. Its patrons are not 
guided by time cards. As a street-car service it must conform to the 
operation methods of a local-transportation service or go into the scrap- 
heap according to the laws of economics. 

Local transportation passed through horse-traction, dummy-traction 
(locomotive), cable to electricity, and every step was demonstration. 
It is not expected that the Illinois Central will experiment with the cable. 

This local transportation discharges fewer passengers into the heart 
of the city during the rush hours than does either of the electrically 
operated elevated roads. Everything which it could do to develop the 
residence use of the lake shore would be to its profit. 

Suggestions here offered are electric traction, surface feeding elec- 
tric lines, more frequent trains, and a connection with a subway dis- 
tributing system in the down- town district. 

What might be termed the radiating systems from Sixty-seventh 
Street are subiu^ban services. South Chicago is largely self-contained 
and in consequence does not support a service into the city proportion- 
ate to its population. Yet to put this line on the basis of a suburban 
electric line with a proper feeding system will develop the region and 
the patronage of the road and will give the same economics of admin- 
istration that suburban electric lines always give in competition with 
locomotive traction. 

The Flossmoor service is now brought in competition with electric 
traction and must therefore give equal service or suffer. The Blue 
Island service must go to electric traction to compete with the shorter 
haul of the Rock Island. Over none of these lines do the trains make 
sufficient speed to require the most rigid type of construction. There- 
fore a third-rail or catenary construction will probably not be required 
on any except the Flossmoor service and the Kensington & Eastern. 

For the economics of ordinary operation of this service we do not 
think it necessary to say much. The figm-es of Mr. Brinckerhoff, who 
was in charge of the South Side Rapid Transit, show that the cost of 
operation of that line under electricity fell to 8.9 cents per car mile as 
compared with 10.5 cents imder steam-locomotive traction. 

The economics of such a service are well understood by the general 
public as well as by railroad officials. It is safe to say that were it not 
for the other arms of their service the Illinois Central would have elec- 
trified this arm a long time ago. Demonstration of the economics of 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 295 

through passenger business in the heavy trains necessary for economic 
locomotive traction has only been demonstrated on a large scale in the 
last few years. The upkeep of an electric service operated in addition 
to a steam-locomotive service is heavy. 

The Port Huron tunnel electric service was not satisfactory so long 
as there was any use of steam-locomotive engines. The cost of equip- 
ment and of maintenance for one arm alone will be disproportionate 
as compared with its proportion of equipment and maintenance of the 
three-armed service. 

We are convinced that in terminals electrical working of each of the 
three arms is feasible and economical, and there is no longer reason for 
the use of locomotive traction on suburban and local- transportation 
service. Besides, it kills the goose that lays the golden egg. 

THE FREIGHT SERVICE 

The Illinois Central and its associated lines haul most of their freight 
to a freight-yard extending from Randolph Street on the south to the 
Chicago River on the north, and from the old Randolph Street Station 
on the west to the lake on the east. This yard is used jointly by the 
four roads, each having certain districts and certain rights within it. 

It is occupied by warehouses, elevators, team-tracks, coal-yards. 
There is a large switch-yard for the Illinois Central at Fordham, a stor- 
age-yard at Burnside, a Michigan Central yard at Kensington and a 
small freight-yard near Riverside and one at Wildwood. In addition, 
there are many milk-platforms, team-tracks, coal-yards, storage-tracks, 
and spurs to industrial plants along the right of way. The usual arrange- 
ment is a diverging track giving off loading and storage tracks parallel 
.to the original track. Except for a quarter-mile west of State Street 
on and near Sixteenth Street, it is very free from crossing-tracks which 
would render the physical problems difficult. The trains are made up 
by the usual type of switch-engine and they are then hauled away in 
heavy imits. The freight trunk- tracks are used exclusively as such 
for several miles out, so that the road is relatively free from detention 
of second and third class trains within the inner part of the terminal 
zone. The freight-trunks are most heavily loaded at night. During 
the day hours they are fairly free from traffic, except for cars running 
between the different yards. Switching and spotting is done mostly 
during the early hours of the morning and quite considerably during 
the remainder of the day hours. It will be noted that the peak-load on 
trunk-line freight is at night, switching in the very early morning and at 



296 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

midday; passengers from 7 to 9 a. m. and 4:30 to 6:30 p. m. A common 
power-plant, then, would find its load distributed throughout the twenty- 
four horn's. Short intervals of light load could be used to store power 
for the different peak-hours. 

The heavy use of engines by the through passenger traffic will be in 
the morning and afternoon, by the freight trains at night. The engines 
can be used interchangeably for freight and passenger use. The subur- 
ban cars will run without locomotives. They will be multiple units. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

In considering the electrification of the Illinois Central, electrifi- 
cation should be carried to the end of the suburban zone — that is, all 
trackage between South Water Street and Flossmoor, (24.92 miles south) 
should be electrified. The double- track branch from Sixty-seventh 
Street to South Chicago, and the single-track branch from Blue Island 
Jimction to Blue Island, should be included. 

The electrification should also be carried out on the Freeport divis- 
ion to Harlem Junction, where the Wisconsin Central trains reach the 
Ilhnois Central right of way. 

Preferably, the Michigan Central's trackage should be electrified to 
near city limits. The exact point we have not determined. They 
might turn their traiQS over to electric engines or inaugurate an electric 
through and suburban service from Hammond. Perhaps an electrifi- 
cation to the heavy industrial zone of the east would pay. 

In Plate A (prepared by the staff of the Smoke Department) is 
shown a representation of the daily train movement over the Illinois 
Central trackage. This does not include the Freeport division nor any 
trains belonging to foreign roads after they have left the Illinois Central 
right of way. It embraces simply the traffic between Randolph Street 
(or Twelfth Street) and Flossmoor, Blue Island and South Chicago. 

The Smoke Department and ourselves made a 24-hour observation 
of the Illinois Central, with observers stationed at Thirty-ninth Street. 
They counted the number of trains passing that point during 24 
hours, the number and character of cars to each traiQ and estimated 
the number of passengers in the case of suburban trains. Using 
tliis to work from, we have prepared a diagram, Plate B. This gives 
at A the number of trains on the line at each particular instant of the 
day, the lines B and C representing the north and south bound trains 
respectively, going to make up this diagram. From our observed data 
and from assumptions made on schedule trains not imder observation. 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 297 

(these being the trains on the Freeport division and the trains between 
Fordham and Flossmoor) there was computed the tonnage diagram D, 
which shows the ton miles per minute being hauled over the road at each 
minute of the day, the north and south bound components being shown 
at E and F respectively. 

From this, and after a selection of the probable watt-hour consump- 
tion for the different classes of trains, there was computed the diagram 
G, which gives the expected load at the power-house from the operation 
of the Illinois Central. In this computation we have used a much hea- 
vier subm'ban equipment than the Illinois Central uses. It is probable 
that the larger proportion of the suburban equipment could be fitted 
with motors and adapted to an electrical service, but we have preferred 
to use the New York Central weights as representing the most progress- 
ive equipment. 

In Appendix A are given the detailed calculations whence these curves 
are plotted. 

Appendix B gives the detailed observations upon which the compu- 
tations were based. From these we find the following results: 

The Illinois Central has, 3,428 scheduled suburban train miles daily, 
1,315 scheduled suburban train miles Sunday, 1,054 scheduled daily 
train miles passenger, 607 scheduled daily train miles freight. 

On day observations were taken, 6,435.45 observed and estimated 
train miles. 2,656,435 observed and estimated ton miles. 103,288.50 
estimated kilowatt hours. 413 tons, average weight train. 40 watt- 
hours per ton mile. 16.05 kilowatt-hours per train mile. Maximum 
kilowatts 12,300, average kilowatts 4,303.6, minimum kilowatts 700, 
35% load-factor. 

In computing the probable cost of the electrification of the road, 
we have made no provision for the purchase of a power-station, since we 
assume that current can be purchased locally from power-supply com- 
panies for seventh-eighths cent a kilowatt-hour, or under. If this can- 
not be done, the railroad could put in a 12,000-kilowatt plant, which 
would supply current at that figure. We have allowed in our estimates 
a manufacturing cost of four-tenths of a cent, which is easily attainable 
around Chicago, with a large plant, and our estimates on this were as 
follows : 

Power costs about $.004 per kilowatt hour at switchboard (see 
works cost of power in '^Notes on Economics"). Station, complete, 
costs $90 per kilowatt. Assume 35% load factor. Then we must earn 
carrying charges upon $257. Allow 3% to sinking fund, 5% interest 



298 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



Q Randolph St. Mi. 



City Limits. 

o 



70 i]/li. 



16th St. 2.00 IVIi. 
Q26th St. 8.03 IVIi. 



67th St. 8.4 Mi. 0- 



^ South } 

"" Chicago I '^-^^ "'■ 



Blue Island 
18.94 Mi. 



Fordham 11.48 Mi. 
Burnside 11.98 Mi. 



J<ensington 14.54 Mi. 

Jiiuerdale 17.22 Mi. 
C 



City 




ity Limits, 
78^5 Mi. 



A Harvey 20.07 Mi. 



^Floaamoor, 24.92 Mi. 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 299 

1% taxes, 3% emergency replacement fund; a total of 12% or 1% a 

month. 

Carrying charges on 1% of $257 = $2.57 per month for 730 hours, or 

$.0035 per kilowatt-hour. 

Manufacturing cost $ . 004 

Fixed charges 0035 

Total cost $0.0075 per kilowatt- 
hour. Or, if power cannot be p\u*chased at J^ cents per kilowatt-hour, 
it can be manufactured within that figure. 

In the electrification of the road, we have assumed that the power 
would be purchased and deUvered to a distributing station at Twenty- 
sixth Street, whence it would be carried to sub-stations located at Ran- 
dolph Street, at Sixty-seventh Street, at Kensington, and at Harvey, 
and about four miles out on the Freeport division. (See diagram) 
We have assumed that the entire route-trackage would be equipped with 
a third-rail system and that the greater part of the freight-yards at the 
terminal and of the trackage in the vicinity of the Twelfth Street station 
would be equipped with third rail. Above South Water Street, we have 
assumed that an overhead construction would suffice, generally, of a 
double- track trolley construction carried by span- wires. The load 
would be light on these tracks and there would never be occasion for 
speed. The team-tracks and other tracks to the east of the Wiscon- 
sin Central freight-house would also be provided with an overhead 
trolley equipment, as would the tracks upon the pier at Twelfth Street. 
We have also assumed that an overhead equipment would be provided 
to the Twenty-sixth Street roimd-house and for the sidings below 
Sixteenth Street. Where intricate track lay-outs demand it, allowance 
has been made for special overhead work. 

For important points a good steel overhead construction with a bar 
conductor would have to be provided, but for lightly used tracks a sec- 
tion of trolley wire carried overhead would suffice to get trains onto a 
section of third rail, should they stall. Between electrical efficiency 
and economy of construction at most points demanding special over- 
head construction the choice should be to the latter. As the movements 
are slow therein, we have assumed that an overhead construction can 
be installed for the Fordham, Burnside, and Wildwood yards. We have 
assumed a multiple-unit equipment for suburban service. The detailed 
estimates follow: 



300 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



City Limits. O- 



From 



Power Supply 



o Randolpfi St. 



o- 



O 



> 



67th St. 6 



Kensington. 



26th St. 



Haruey, 



Flossmoor. Q 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 301 

A maximum of 34 trains on the line at one time (6:10 p. m.,) 9 of 
which would be drawn by locomotives and 2 are Woodlawn two-car 
locals. 

A maximum of 115 coaches at this time on suburban. A maximum 
of 73 motor cars at this time on suburban required. (3 x 23 + 2 x 2.) 

Allow 90 car equipments at $5,000 = $450,000. 

Assume a 12,000-kilowatt equipment of sub-stations. 

Since apparatus will carry 50% overload for two hours, this allows 
one-third of the apparatus to be down for repairs and the apparatus 
will still safely carry the peak. 

The main power-station, or a distributing and sub-station would 
preferably be located at Twenty-sixth Street. 

Sub-stations may average about 8 miles apart. No part of the line 
may be much over 4 miles from the sub-station feeding it. Sub- 
stations actually apart 6.0, 8.4, 6.14, and 5.53 miles. 

Greatest distances fed: 

4.2 miles, Douglas; 3.00 miles Springfield division; 3.20 miles 
above Forty-third Street; 4.52 miles South Chicago; 3.07 miles 
between Fordham and Burnside; 4.44 miles Blue Island; 4.00 miles, 
Michigan Central; 2.77 miles, just below Riverdale; 4.85 miles. Floss- 
moor. 

Sub-stations cost about $40 per kilowatt complete. 
12,000 times 40 = $480,000 for sub-stations. 

There must be a distributing station at Twenty-sixth Street. 

12,000 times 10 = $120,000 or $600,000 for distributing and sub- 
stations. 

Provide a separate transmission line for each sub-station, tying in 
the Kensington line to the Sixty-seventh Street station and the Harvey 
line to the Kensington station, thus permitting of the sectionalization 
of a section without affecting the remaining ones. 

SINGLE TRANSMISSION LINE PER MILE 

18 steel towers, 2,000 pounds each, at $0.06 erected $2,160.00 

54 33,000-volt insulators, at $0.55 29.70 

30 pounds wire for ties, at $0.25 7.50 

Sleeves, solder, etc 10 .00 

Extras, curves, etc 100 . 00 

Wire, 3 miles, No. 2 B. & S., at $0.255 815 .00 



302 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Labor $100 per mile $100.00 

18 Tower fda (3 cu. yds. at $9.00), 486.00 

$3,708.20 
Engineering at 10% 370.80 

Total $4,079.00 



DOUBLE TRANSMISSION LINE PER MILE 

18 steel towers 2,500 pounds at $0 .06 erected $2,700 .00 

108 33,000 volt insulators at $0.55 59.40 

60 pound wire ties 15 . 00 

Sleeves, solder, etc 20 . 00 

Extra, curves, etc 100 . 00 

Wire, 6 miles. No. 2 B. & S 1,630.00 

Labor, $100 per mile of 3 wires 200 .00 

Tower fda (4 cu. yds at $9.00) 648.00 

$5,372.40 
Engineering 537 . 25 

Total $5,909.65 

Single line, Freeport division 5 .03 miles 

Single line. Twenty-sixth to Sixty-seventh Street 5.37 miles 

Two single lines, Sixty-seventh Street to Kensington 12 . 28 miles 

One single hne, Kensington to Harvey 6 . 40 miles 

29.08 miles 

For the entire transmission system, the cost wiU be: 

Double hne. Twenty-sixth Street to Sixty-seventh Street 5.4 miles 

Double Hne in conduits Twenty-sixth Street to Randolph 10,000 
leec. 

5.4 miles of double Hne at $5,909.65 $ 31,912. 11 

29 miles of single Hne at $4,079.00 .' 118,291 .00 

10,000 feet ''double" in conduits at $4 40,000 .00 

Total $190,203 . 1 1 

For the line construction the following quantities were taken off 
maps of the road in a running estimate designed to be approximate : 

Third Rafl Single Double In Cost of 

Third Rail Track Jumper App. Trolley Trolley Bldgs Overhead 

Feet Feet Feet Blocks Feet Feet Feet Work 

To Park Row. 

9,175 9,225 280 29 

9,100 7,100 475 30 

16,100 16,550 465 35 

19,000 19,225 520 41 

11,950 12,100 470 38 

9,575 9,225 470 39 

10,650 10,800 585 45 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 303 

18,325 5,682 $6,650 
10,000 



7,000 



5,850 


6,650 


34,500 


35 9,250 


16,450 


16,525 


730 


58 


16,600 


16,450 


910 


70 


21,500 


21,075 


840 


93 


14,900 


14,925 


1,270 


183 


160,850 


159,850 


41,515 


696 


To 16th Street 




5,675 


7,350 


7,350' 


480 


79 


22,725 


22,750 


520 


69 


18,500 


19,200 


1,450 


184 


14,825 


14,825 


640 


91 


18,100 


18,100 


180 
3,270 


23 


81,500 


82,225 


446 


To Flossmoor. 






36,012 


36,012 


640 


101 


22,220 


22,496 


340 


44 13,800 


18,600 


18,930 


500 


52 


31,600 


32,310 


200 


24 4,000 


26,300 


26,580 


700 


56 


111,250 


111,798 


500 


30 800 


22,920 


22,920 


400 


42 1,600 


34,900 


35,112 


2,300 


52 


28,200 


29,412 


11,500 


60 


100,692 


100,992 


1,800 


104 


36,700 


37,056 


1,800 


104 


600 


600 


2,200 


48 


44,500 


44,864 


1,100 


42 


80,800 


81,656 


2,800 


44 


595,294 


600,738 


16,780 


803 



15,175 



12,800 



3,000 



3,000 
2,000 
2,000 



South Chicago Branch 16,565 24,100 

Blue Isl. Branch 12,851 20,492 

837,644 842,813 61,565 1,945 64,541 90,892 $33,650 

62,000 65,367 3,720 150 8,585 3,000 
1,600 1,884 100 10 70,000 

901,244 910,064 65,385 2,105 143,126 90,892 5,682 $36,650 

Fordham, Burnside, Wildwood Yds 91.88 miles 

162,000 162,000 

901,244 910,064 65,385 2,105 305,126 252,892 5,682' $36,650 



304 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

The estimated cost of the entire electrification, not including a 
power house is: 

901,324 feet, 300,441 yards. 70-pound rail = 10,516 tons at $30 

($28+ $2 for special section) $315,480 

54,616 2-bolt splice bars at $0 . 15 8,193 

Nuts and bolts for splice 3,273 

109,232 Malleable iron bracket and bolt hooks at $0 . 40 43,694 

163,848 Lag screws, at $0 .02 3,277 

740,000 feet wooden protection, at $40 per 1,000 29,600 

110,000 Pairs insulators, at $0 . 40 44,000 

110,000 Extra for long ties, at $0.50 55,000 

55,000 Rail bonds, at $0 . 70 37,500 

2,100 Approach blocks, at $4 8,400 

Miscellaneous at S5 per 1000 feet 4,510 

$552,927 
Add 5% 27,647 

$580,574 

Installing 110,000 ties, at $0.35 38,500 

InstaUing 110,000 brackets at $0 . 10 11,000 

Installing 901,324 feet rails and protectors at $50 per 

1,000 feet 45,066 

Installing 55,000 bonds at $0 . 40 22,000 

InstaUing 21,000 approach blocks, at $0 . 50 10,500 

Distributing material $35 per 1,000 feet 31,540 

65,385 feet jumpers and other cable, at $1 .80 117,693 

$856,873 
901,324 feet track bonding, at $65 per 1,000 58,590 

$915,463 
Engineering and superintendence at 10% 91,546 

1,007,009 
305,126 feet = 57.81 miles single-trolley bracket construction 

at ($2,497 +$363 bonds), $2,860 165,336 

$1,172,345 
252,982 feet = 47 . 91 miles trolley double-track span construc- 
tion at ($4,966 +$364), $5,330 255,360 

Total Line $1,427,705 

5,682 feet in warehouses at $0 . 40 2,373 

$1,430,078 

Overhead work 36,650 

90 car equipments 450,000 

Sub-stations 480,000 

Distributing station 120,000 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 305 

Transmission line 190,203 

35 Locomotives at $30,000 1,050,000 

Change in signals, 30 miles at $1,000 30,000 

Change in station platforms $20,000 20,000 



Total $3,806,931 

Credit 30 locomotives available for use on other parts of the line, 

at $15,000 450,000 



Total cost of electrification $3,356,931 

No credit is given for suburban locomotives as they will have little 
availability for the rest of the road. Besides, they are generally old 
enough to have most of their value written off the books. 

Results to be anticipated: 

Train on terminal burns about 160 pounds of coal per hour at $1.70 

13.5 cents per train mile. 

Current at %c per kilowatt-hour for 16 kilowatt = 12 cents per 
train mile. 

Current at %c per kilowatt-hour for 16 kilowatt = 14 cents per 
train mile. 

Or cost of current is about equal to cost of coal. 

103,288.50 kilowatt-hours at 4 pounds of coal = 413,154 pounds. 

413,154 pounds = 207 tons coal (not including switching). 

6,500 train miles at 160 pounds, 1,040,000 = 520 tons 

AUow for switching 80 tons 

Say 600 tons daily 

Handling 600 tons coal at 50 cents $300 

Allow 5% ash on 600 tons = 30 tons 

Handling 30 tons cinders at $1.00 30 

Saving daily $330 

(This allows for operation and repair of fuel stations, fixed charges 
on same, and dead time and dead movement lost in coaling.) 

Illinois Central costs per train mile, $1.27. Only one-half the num- 
ber of locomotives will be used — suburbans being handled by motor 
cars — so one-half of renewals and repairs of buildings should be can- 
celled, or 1.15% of 2.304%. Water supply of .65% entirely saved. 

1.15% + .65% = 1.8%. 

1.8 X 1.27 X 6,500 = $148.59 per day saved. 

Repairs and renewals of passenger cars cost 1.04c per car mile; we 
should save one-third this, or .35c per car-mile. 



306 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

Average through train consists of 6 cars. 
6 X .35 = 2.1 cents per train mile. 
2.1 X 1,054 = S22.13 per day. 
Repairs and renewals, locomotives, 

8.8% times 1.27 = 10.26 cents per mile. 
Electric locomotives at 3 cents. 

10.26 — 3 = 7.26 cents net saving per mile through traffic. 
7.26 X 1,660 = $120.52. 
(The renewals with electrical apparatus will appear in the sinking 
fund.) 

Repairs and renewals of motor coaches (including electrical equip- 
ment) = .01 per car-mile. 

Repairs and renewals of passenger coaches = 1.04 cents at present. 
- Therefore, entire locomotive maintenance saved : 

10.26 times 3,500 = $441 saved in suburban service on locomotive 
maintenance. 

60 firemen at $2.50 saved = $150. 
Savings to be expected, therefore, are: 

Locomotive maintenance saved on suburban trains $441 . 00 

Locomotive maintenance saved on through trains 120 . 52 

Repairs and renewals, passenger cars 22 . 13 

Saving on water supply and repairs and renewals of buildings. . . . 148.59 

Saving on firemen's labor 150 .00 

Saving on coal and ash handling 330 . 00 

Saved per day $1,212.24 

365 X $1,212.24 = $442,467.60 

Discount same 5% on account less movement on Sunday = $420,344.00 
saved per annum, 
= 10.5% on $4,000,000, 
= 12.5% on $3,356,931. 

Deduct 

325 miles X $100 per annum for upkeep of line equipment. . . . $32,500 

6% on $450,000 for sinking fund on car equipments 27,000 

5% on $120,000 distributing station 6,000 

5% on $1,050,000 for locomotives 52,500 

4% on $480,000 for sub-stations 19,200 

4% on $190,000 for transmission line 7,600 

Taxes 1% on $3,356,931 33,570 

Total debits $178,370 

Total saving 442,467 

There is, therefore, a NET saving of $264,097 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 307 

Even if no added traffic comes of the electrification, this wiU pay 
7.87% on investment; or will pay 6.6% on an investment of $4,000,- 
000, should a better construction be adopted. 

And this does not include any estimate on the probable earning 
power of the electrification jper se. 

The estimated cost of $3,356,931 (not including a power-house) 
represents the lowest probable cost of a sufficient installation. It could 
probably be reduced by certain economies such as the employment of 
wooden poles instead of steel towers for the transmission line, or an 
insulation of the third rail similar to that employed in the North Shore 
electrification, but such cheapening would not be wise. 

On the other hand, such cost could be considerably increased. With 
a free hand and only the needs of the future in prospect it might even be 
trebled. What provision for the future would be made would be a 
matter for decision by the controlling officials of the railroad and purely 
a matter of poUcy. We have contented ourselves with allowing for an 
equipment sufficient only for the present and, to offset the carrying 
charges thereon, have only taken into consideration the savings to be 
effected in electrically handling the present traffic with no allowance 
for the gains from electrification. 

The provision of the cheapest satisfactory equipment for a new 
enterprise has seemed to us to be in line with American railroad poUcy. 
Contrary to European practice, the policy in America in railroad building 
or extension has been to provide the cheapest construction, which would 
still be satisfactory, until the work begins to carry itself; then to pro- 
vide for the future. For this reason, on new lines, heavy grades, wooden 
trestles, sharp curves, hazardous drainage, and the hke prevail until 
earnings begin to come in when the physical condition of the road is 
rectified. Occasionally, high-grade improvements are put in from the 
start, although these occasionally defeat their end — notably where the 
prime physical condition of a single-track road means the wiping out of 
a lot of capital which has not yet earned itself back when the necessity 
comes of double tracking. Wisdom would demand a close consideration 
of future demands in the installation of a terminal electrification; but 
the giving heed to future demands would also require a looking to the 
future for a part of the profits. As its simplest consideration, we have 
preferred to choose an equipment sufficient only to the demands of the 
present and to look for the returns only from the savings to be 
immediately expected. 

There will certainly be additional traffic, there will be lessened up- 



308 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

keep of buildings and structures, there will be savings from switching 
and dead movement, not included in the above, there will be greater 
mileage capacity, the good will of the pubhc — a number of gains not 
easily computed. A plot of land near the South Water Street freight 
terminals, suitable for the erection of a warehouse or factory, rents for 
about $10,000 per annum. Should the Illinois Central not wish to go 
into the building of terminal storage warehouses, we still believe that a 
considerable revenue from ground rent would be available, in the case 
of electrification. 

Should their trains be worked electrically, there is no doubt but that 
business men contemplating the erection of warehouses, would be willing 
to construct multi-storied warehouses on the ground occupied by the 
freight-houses, providing a lower floor for use as a railroad freight-house 
and paying the railroad handsome ground rent for so convenient a loca- 
tion for their place of business. Without covering over any tracks, the 
ground now occupied by freight-houses, so used when electrification 
would allow of it, would afford the railroad its present freight-house 
capacity and afford 25 warehouse building-sites for which a rental of 
$250,000 per annum may be expected. 

Electrification for the Illinois Central will then not only produce 
sufficient saving to provide for ample sinking funds and return an 
income upon the investment, but will probably lead to largely in- 
creased returns from operation and open very promising avenues of 
income whence large amounts of money may be secured. It will effect, 
outright, savings sufficient to make it worthy of consideration. It 
offers potential gains sufficient to compel its consideration. 

Electrification for the Illinois Central having been found to be prac- 
ticable as an engineering work, and having been found to be economic- 
ally advantageous, let us pass to our next and final inquiry regarding 
this road. 

THE FINANCES OF THE ILLINOIS CENTRAL 

The object of this inquiry is to determine whether electrification of 
the Illinois Central terminals would be an unreasonable demand from 
the financial standpoint. 

The studies antedating this have proven that the improvements 
would save enough on operation to pay enough to cover depreciation 
and interest charges. 

In addition, there is every reason to anticipate still further gains 
accruing from increased use of tracks, increased business handled and 
greater value to terminals and especially warehouses and depots. It 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 309 

will be noted that a line of demarcation is drawn between demonstrable 
earnings and gains which are probable but which still are speculative. 
Wandering a little further afield, there will be gains from a change in the 
character of the neighborhoods traversed. We will agree that for pur- 
poses of suburban traffic locomotive traction blights a certain amount 
of residence property on either side. The close-by residence ground 
along electric lines is more remunerative to the traversing lines. Still 
other speculative gains come from the good-will of the neighbors, of the 
community at large, of the press, and, by no means least, of the pas- 
sengers hauled, both through and local. 

But all of these gains might be apparent to the Board of Directors 
of a railroad and the project still might not be feasible to them or their 
property because of the general financial condition of the country or 
because of the finances of their company. The first of these need not 
be considered in this instance. The country will have resumed its 
normal financial condition before actual payments on electrification 
shall be required. The question then resolves itself into this: Has 
the Illinois Central now the money on hand to pay for such an im- 
provement ? If not, can it secure this money at a rate of interest which 
will not be prohibitive? 

Let us compare the Illinois Central with the Northwestern. Perhaps 
this is especially appropriate as the Northwestern is planning new Chi- 
cago terminals to cost many times as much as will electrification. 

Northwestern Illinois Central 

Mileage 7,623 4,378 

Total capital stock $121,998,900 $ 95,040,000 

Total funded debt 164,214,000 154,894,270 

Capitalization 286,212,900 249,934,275 

Capitalization per mile single track 37,500 57,200 

Gross earnings 68,878,931 56,610,633 

Percentage of gross for dividends based on 

10-year average 22.4% 19.5% 

Ton mileage per mile ('06) 694,047 1,408,403 

Passenger mileage per mile ('06) 94,653 115,598 

During the last ten years the Northwestern road has earned nearly 
$486,000,000 gross, of which it has had left after charges nearly $109,- 
000,000 for dividend, betterment, and reserve purposes. Before bring- 
ing down net earnings the road has spent about 23%, more than 
$110,000,000, for maintenance and upkeep, and this amount has been 
sufficient to add very materially to the uncapitahzed value of the plant, 
besides maintaining the property free from impairment. Since 1900 



310 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

the increase in gross earnings has aggregated 81}^ %, but capitalization 
has increased only 26.6 %. 

In ten years, the Illinois Central has earned about $406,000,000 of 
which about $89,400,000 has been available for dividends after very 
liberal maintenance. 

In 1907, the Illinois Central earned $12,952.10 per mile and expended 
$8,659.28 per mile. The net earnings were 33.57%. The rate paid 
to the stock-holders was 7%, the difference going to various funds pres- 
ently to be discussed. 

From 1855 to 1907, the Illinois Central paid the stock-holders 
$138,362,061.59 in cash dividends. They paid the state of Illinois 
$25,604,397.99 as 7% on the gross earnings of 705.5 miles of track. 

The road has paid 45 dividends since 1863. It has never passed a 
dividend. The average rate for 45 years has been 6.922%. 

This high interest rate is not usual except in properties subject to a 
high rate of hazard. Such, however, is not the case here. Everything 
connected with the road makes for stability. It runs from east to west 
and from north to south. It therefore handles an unusual variety of 
crop products. A short corn crop is apt to be balanced by a good cotton 
crop. The history of financial and economic depressions, certainly in 
the last fifty years, does not show synchronism between periods of 
depression north and south. 

In addition, the Illinois Central provides rather unusually against 
depreciation and spends quite hberally for upkeep. The table shows a 
percentage of dividend disbursement to gross of 19.5 as against 22.4 
for the Chicago and Northwestern. In 1907 the lUinois Central passed 
to its various funds to insure against losses of one sort and another 
$8,257,234.93 as agamst $6,652,800.00 for dividends. This might, ui a 
certain sense, be termed a surplus dividend fund. In addition, they 
passed to maintenance of way $6,851,449.77, and to maintenance of 
equipment $9,596,006.84. The fund to secure against losses includes 
$3,794,986.97 for the improvement fund and $192,946.64 for the per- 
manent improvement fund. 

If these figures be compared with the figures, mileage, liability, 
maiQtenance charges, reserves, and dividends of such standard, reputable, 
high-grade roads as the Chicago & Alton, and the Rock Island, it will be 
seen that the Illinois Central is well within its bonding capacity. 

In addition to these features of stability, the road is actually double- 
tracked for 678.53 miles and is potentially double- tracked between 
Chicago and all of its great markets except Omaha. This double-track- 



THE SITUATION IN CHICAGO 311 

ing, and other permanent improvements, have been done partly out of 
bonds but largely out of earnings, so that the increase both in earning 
value of the property and in its physical assets has been out of proportion 
to the increase of its funded debt and stock liability. Some of the 
moneys that they might have paid as cash dividends have been passed 
to the account of dividends through greater security. 

For example, they have just secured entrance to Birmingham in 
great measure by trackage arrangement with the Mobile and Ohio, 
K. C, M. & B., and North Alabama, yet they have built 83.23 miles. 
The cost of this venture is $4,380,000, of which the sum of $1,120,000 
is spent in the Birmingham depots and terminals. The Memphis plan 
now being executed calls for an expenditure of $3,000,000. 

The above figures do not include the data relating to the Yazoo 
and Mississippi Valley owned by the Illinois Central. 

The construction of the Kensington & Eastern is being financed, and 
the operation of the Indianapolis Southern is being carried on, in 
order to originate and develop both a new passenger field and a new 
kind and volume of freight. The wisest of expenditure for double- 
tracking, bridges and other items is going on, and yet the only adverse 
(if it might be so termed) indication of this in the 1907 report is a net 
Hability account of $10,000,000. On January 1, 1908, they filed with 
the United States Trust Co. of New York a first lien equipment mortgage 
to secure a bond-issue of $30,000,000 bearing 4%. Poor's Manual for 
1908 contains no reference to this loan, but does contain notice of an 
authorization of increase of capital stock in the sum of $28,512,000. 
Of this $14,256,000 was offered to the stockholders of record. May 28, 
1908. Provision was made for the issuing of the remaining half of the 
authorization according to the demands of the road. The general 
balance sheet carried two items that probably this stock-proceeds would 
be used to settle, namely, net liabilities $10,968,135.37 and profit and 
loss $4,160,960.12. It is reasonable to conclude that some of the 
moneys went for double-tracking, some for Memphis and Birmingham 
and similar improvements, and some went into advances account of 
other roads, $7,581,728.72. 

However, we cannot figure either of these items, as we have no 
knowledge as to which of the company's liabilities it has cancelled. 

As soon as this money shall be available in its entirety it will easily 
carry the profit-and-loss account of 1907, such improvements as are now 
under way, so far as popular information goes, and leave in the treasury 
far more than the four or six millions required to electrify the Chicago 



312 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

terminals as far out as Flossmoor, South Chicago, Blue Island and River- 
side, for freight, passenger, and suburban service. Of this six millions, 
two millions will be for a power-plant. 

If there is any monetary difficulty, power can be purchased on some- 
what the same basis as the Michigan Central at Detroit. Therefore, 
it can be assumed that this two millions will be financially feasible by one 
plan or the other. It would be most conservative to estimate that any 
corporation, and especially the Illinois Central, could borrow 50% of the 
remaining four millions on the improvement as security. This leaves 
two millions to come from its general borrowing powers. What a baga- 
telle as compared with its 294 millions of capitalization, or as compared 
with the difference between its par value and its market value, or 
between its par value and its earning value, or between its par value 
and its book value. 

But further comparisons are rather useless. It is not much of a 
hazard that this thirty-million-dollar loan makes the six millions re- 
quired available at any time without further increase in the funded debt. 



THE EAILROADS IN RELATION TO LOCAL 
TRANSPORTATION 

MILTON J. FOREMAN 

Railroads doing an intramural passenger-carrying business in Chicago 
are to all intents and purposes street railways, and should, so far as that 
branch of their business is concerned, be considered and treated as such. 

While it is true that these roads are organized under the ^' Railroad 
Act," and not subject, by ordinance, to the same control and regula- 
tion by the city as are the surface street-railway lines and elevated 
railway lines, they have, by engaging in this branch of business, 
become a part of the local transportation system. 

The ordinances under which almost all of the street railways of the 
city are now being operated practically make the city a partner; it not 
only shares the net profits, but has a controlling voice in the construc- 
tion, maintenance, and operation of the roads. To these companies, in 
which the city has a direct interest, the railroads doing an intramural 
and local passenger business are direct competitors, and they thereby 
become competitors of the city of Chicago. 

The growth and importance of this feature of the railroad business 
was apparently overlooked when the railroads were granted the right to 
enter Chicago, for if it had been foreseen, the city would undoubtedly 
have specifically reserved control and regulation of that part of their 
business. 

The character of the grants under which these railroads are operated 
within the city, contains no reservation as to control, regulation, payment 
of compensation, or rates of fare to be charged in their intramural busi- 
ness, thus putting them in a very much better position than that occu- 
pied by the surface and elevated railways engaged in the same business, 
and they should be required and should be willing at least to adopt and 
install the same means of propulsion as is required of the former. 

Passengers are now carried practically all over the city of Chicago, on 
the surface street railways, for one five-cent fare. Within the same ter- 
ritory the railroads, without paying any portion of their revenue to the 
city for the privileges which they enjoy, and disclaiming any right of con- 
trol or regulation by the city, charge and receive several times this fare 
for carrying a passenger the same or a lesser distance. 

313 



314 ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 

On account of the large area covered by Chicago, and the importance 
to it of the large population lying just outside of its limits, the develop- 
ment of this form of transportation should be encouraged, as a street- 
railway system, imder proper municipal control and regulation. 

The first step in this direction is the electrification of the terminals 

used in connection with their intramural business. It is my opinion that 

the practicabihty and final economy to the railroad companies will lead 

, to the prompt electrification of all their passenger and freight terminals. 

It will be like the experience the railroads had with track-elevation. 

If the railroads want to retain their local business, it is my opinion 
that they will, in seK-defense, be required to electrify and that at once. 
Many interurban roads are already built, and are now being built to the 
limits of the city, from all directions, and they are knocking at our doors 
for admission. These interiu"ban roads tap regions traversed by the rail- 
roads, and if the railroads desire to compete with them for Chicago busi- 
ness, they will be compelled to adopt the newest and most modern 
methods of propulsion. In the event the railroad companies decline to 
make this change, the city has various methods by which the wisdom 
of the step may be impressed upon the railroad companies. The city, 
for instance, might, amongst other things, give the other carrying 
agencies within the territory traversed by these railroads such facihties 
as would make it more desirable for passengers to travel upon these 
lines than upon the railroads. 

That the railroads are not obHvious to this trend is proven by the 
fact that there are cases where they are joining neighboring cities to their 
trunk lines in Chicago by means of electric lines. 

By the electrification of the Evanston division of the C. M. & St. P. 
railway, this piece of track was changed from a piece of dead property, 
used for an occasional passenger and freight train, to an electric railway, 
and the amount of travel on this road has so far exceeded expectations 
that it has already outstripped the provided facihties. 

The change from steam to electricity of course requires money, but 
this was equally true when the change was made from horse to cable cars, 
and from cable to electricity. It is equally true in the rehabihtation of 
the electric street-railway systems now under way, and wiU be true when, 
imder the existing ordinances, the traction companies are requh^ed to 
install underground trolley. 

The railroads operating street-railway lines within the city of Chicago 
should, so far as possible, be subject to the same regulation and control 



LOCAL TRANSPORTATION 315 

as are their competitors, the traction and elevated lines, and, as a first 
step in this direction, they should adopt, so far as their operation within 
the city is concerned, the most modern means of propulsion, based upon 
the safety, comfort, health, and convenience of the people of the city. 
That means immediate electrification. 



CONCLUSIONS 

MILTON J. FOREMAN, W. A. EVANS, PAUL P. BIRD, G. E. RYDER, 

H. H. EVANS 

Our study of the questions discussed in the foregoing pages leads us 
to the following conclusions: 

1. Smoke is injurious to health: 

(a) Directly, by polluting the air; 

(b) Indirectly, by destroying vegetation. 

2. It is expensive, because it: 

(a) Increases laundry bills; 

(b) Ruins cloths and clothing; 

(c) Increases cost of painting and washing buildings and other 

structures; 

(d) Corrodes iron and other metals; 

(e) Disintegrates stone in structures to some extent; 

(f ) Darkens the air and necessitates a greater use of gas and 

other luminants; 

(g) Destroys vegetation; 
(h) Wastes coal; 

(i ) Injures Chicago as a market center in that its attractiveness 
to the out-of-town buyer is lessened. 

3. Stationary steam plants can be so constructed and operated as 
that they can be run practically, feasibly, and economically without 
making smoke. 

4. While it is possible to operate a steam locomotive without making 
smoke, it is impractical in the operation of a railroad to maintain a 
smokeless condition of locomotives. 

5. Locomotive traction is harmful wherever the volume of business 
requires the use of a number of engines within a narrow radius. 

6. It is not feasible for Chicago railroads to use either coke or anthra- 
cite coal for any large number of locomotives. 

7. Electric traction would remedy so much of the smoke evil as 
results from locomotive smoke. 

8. Electric traction is a developed art, the experimental stage being 
well in the past. This apphes to : 

(a) Suburban business; 

316 



CONCLUSIONS 317 

(b) Through passenger business; 

(c) Freight business in differing proportions. 

9. The Ilhnois Central locomotives do harm. 

10. Electrification of the Illinois Central terminal in its three arms, 
through passenger, local passenger, and freight, is feasible; because: 

(a) The needed funds are available; 

(b) Such operation will save the road enough on cost of opera- 

tion to pay the fixed charges on the added investment 
and also a safe charge for depreciation; 

(c) There will be greater track and train efficiency ; 

(d) There will be increased use of overhead space; 

(e) The physical limitations now crippling the road will be 

removed; 

(f ) Their physical track and yard problem is exceptionally simple ; 

(g) All phases of traction equipment have been demonstrated 

to a degree hitherto unheard of in the history of traction. 

11. In one of its arms the Illinois Central is a part of the local- trans- 
portation problem, an active competitor with other local transportation 
companies, and should be subject to the same opportunities, limitations, 
and controls. 

12. The traction of the different arms cannot be different with a 
proper regard for the economies. 

13. The Illinois Central problem does not differ radically from the 
problems of the other roads entering Chicago. 

14. A proper regard for the conservation of the world's coal supply 
demands the coal economy of electric traction as compared with that of 
locomotives. 

15. The air is the common property of the people. 

16. The right of control of the purity of the air by government is 
superior to the right of control of water in proportion as the purity there- 
of is more necessary for life and health than is water. 

17. In the reasonable administration of this trusteeship or right, the 
obligations of government are superior to any rights of property or liberty 
of any individual or any corporation or government of lesser jurisdiction. 

18. The demand that the lUhiois Central electrify its terminals is 
reasonable, is justified by a proper consideration of all the factors 
involved, and is a duty devolving upon the local government 



APPENDIX A 

TABULATED CALCULATIONS FOR TON-MILE-MINUTE AND LOAD 
CURVES FOR ILLINOIS CENTRAL TERMINAL 

In these computations the following arbitrary rulings were observed : 

All freight trains not on schedule will be assumed to run between Ran- 
dolph Street and Floosmoor on a schedule time of 1 hour and 45 minutes. 

Light engines will be considered as going between Twelfth Street 
Station and Burnside at a speed of 15 miles per hour (see below). 

Michigan Central freights, not on schedule, will be assumed to run 
between Kensington and Randolph Street on a schedule time of 1 hour and 
5 minutes. 

Allow 20 minutes for freights to run from Thirty-ninth Street to 
Randolph Street. 

Allow 40 minutes for engines and empty equipment to run between Burn- 
side and Twelfth Street. 

Allow 10 minutes on such equipment from Thirty-ninth Street to 
Twelfth Street. 

Allow 1 hour and 20 minutes for C. C. &. L. freights to run between 
Riverdale and Randolph Street. 

Allow 25 minutes Freeport division and W. C. passengers from city 
limits to Twelfth Street. 

Allow 30 minutes for Addison passengers between Randolph Street 
and city limits. 

Allow 35 minutes for Freeport and W. C. freights to run between Ran- 
dolph Street and city Hmits. 

Figure all Pullman cars to contain 20 people. 

Figure coaches to contain 42 persons each, except suburbans. 

Figure diners and parlor cars as Pullman cars. 

Figure two coaches as containing passengers — the others being counted 
as baggage, mail, and express. Where a train hauls a chair car, figure its 
passengers in addition to those in the two coaches. 

Assume Addison passenger trains to haul 4 cars each, 35% full. 

Where the loading of a freight is not evident, figure: 

AU refrigerator cars going north to Randolph Street as loaded. 
All refrigerator cars going south from Randolph Street as empty. 
All coal cars going north to Randolph Street as loaded. 
All coal cars going south from Randolph Street as empty. 
All freights clearly on schedule, if not containing an unusual num- 
ber of cars as hauling loaded cars. 

318 



APPENDIX A 319 

Freights in doubt at 50% loaded, 50% empty. 

Trains of over 40 cars pulled by a single engine as made up entirely 

of empty cars. 
Freight trains not observed as containing 20 cars, 50% of which 

are empty. 

The columns in the tabulation are self-explanatory with the exception 
of the items C^ and C^p. As a number of runs in the suburban service are 
identical, a table of values of the ton miles per minute due to the weight 
of the train and to the weight of the passengers, with all seats filled, was made 
for each variety of run and for a varying number of coaches from which 
the values could be entered on the computation sheets with a saving of 
labor. The values C^ and C^ p then represent the following: 

Let T = time of run in minutes. 

M = miles distance between terminals. 
W = total weight of train in tons. 

Ton-miles per minute = ordinate = O = ^— 

Let Wi = weight of train alone. 
Wj = weight of passengers. 

W = w, + w, = ^ = ^' ^"^T+ "^^ = ^1 + ^2 

If a passenger weighs 140 pounds 

n = number of coaches on train. 

p = percentage seats filled. 

s = seats per coach. 

140 n s p 

"^2 — 2000 

n _ Mwi I M X 140 X ns ^ _ p i n r^ 
KJ — -^ I T X 2000 A p — Ui -t- Us P 



320 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 









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321 



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322 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 






e000<)C0C^O00C0O00l>-(>J00O00CiC000TtH0000rHrtHC0(>lt>.O05<N(NC^ 

ooto»J^rH(^?o^^c^JOC<^rHO>OrHl>odocdcdT^^col^6rH05l^t5(^ocdo5odo5 

Tt<tOCO>OCOOO>OCOTti»OOC^iO|>THCqoO>OTf(CO^iOOO'*'^THCQOOTtiCO-^ 
rH CO T-H CO -^ rH CO t-H T-l -^ CO r-f T-l Tt^ CO 00 1—1 (M CO rH rH CO i-H CO CO (N i— I CO i— I 



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t^C^»005COiOCS|COCOC<lC^'*C^OTt<00(NC^I>-COt0050i-lOOC<l(Nl>OOt>.00 

05c<^ooT:J^r-^oqc^_|:ocO(N'^^^c^O'00505CVJTtl1-H(X)lOl-^TH^»05T-^co^>'*^> 
oicJioc^T-loooocdoodcoor^ooO'^ocooioirHoooiaJodcdoJoJt*^ 

■^t^05l>.'-Hl0J>05Ot>.CD001>00O05(Nl>(M05CMt^r-(05OOCX)i-IC005O 
T-H (M "TjH 7-i r-i (M (M COr-lt>. t-( CSJ i-H tH (M (M i-H rH 






ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 

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cooOi>oiioioooooi:Dooi>ooorHi>i>cqooocqo5ooo5oooocqooioooooo 



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ldlHOicqrHtdTHOoilHl>CO'-Hc6rH^>^c6'--^Cq^^T}^1H"o6^H^^ 

cqcoi>coOrHcoooiococDi>coi>t^t>.cqcoooocicorHoococoi>'— icoooco 

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APPENDIX A 



323 



rt<OCQQOl:^'*OOOC<105COOO(X)0'^»0'^COi-HOOOOCOOOC^l^<--lT-ie0050iCO(N005t>-i:DT-lOOS 

1-HT-^uDo^^T-^TtlouDT-Hcoco-^0'^t^coc^c<^■^c<^>ocococ^_u^oo^^c»coc<^>ococ^^ 
(x3oio5cocdc^'o'c<joiu:5'-^•^'ocdcoo6odrHcv5»i:ja5^^^>^co<:orHoo6w 

^OT^C0OCv»OC0rt^r^'<*iT-HU^Ttt00-^00O>OTtii00i'<*''-H0iiOl>iOC>i:0O'— lOOCOC^i— I0501>CO 
(N Tt5 r^ Oq Tti T-H TjH -i** Tf c^" TJ^ C<i Tti Tt^ C^' -^ tJH -^ tJH T-H t}H TjH T^ 

oioooooi— 'OC^^-^c»coc<^<£)oooo»OI-^c»05l>ooc»aiooo•^o■<*|■^rtlco^>•c<^ooirHc^^^IH 
o»Cl>^-H.-^co(^^co^>(^o^-Mai^>OrH(^:)lO(^5t^Oi^-copp^>03COc^^■^^>;C^_coI--^05 

Tt^OOCO^>T^O^»OiO>OOil>OTt^^HTt^COOil>COC^050Tt^'*t^(^5C<^OT-H05CO»OcOCOTtl05CO^>0 
coco (N (N <M (M rH 7-H CO -^ t-H CO r-H (M (M CSJ .-H (M r-l (N CO (N (M tH CO CO (M (M (M r-l »0 

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
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0050:!i-H'*0(NO(MCOC00005TtHC0050:i'*OiC^05l>iOrHQO 
1— ii— iCQ-'^-^TtiutiOOO'— lOOi— i(Ni— ii-H(MCOCO(M(NCO'*CO 



CO CO CO • CO CO T^i CO • rfi Tti -^ '^ Tt( T^ '^ lO »0 lO >0 lO VO to ^ lO lO vO 1> lO lO to UO lO lO 



l0l>C0t0t0u0C0C0C0t0t005C0Ot0OC0t0C0'<*l>OC0iOt0»OOC0t0C0t0t0Ot000t0t0i0C0O 
Tl ^ '~1 '\?. '^. "^ "^ '"1 "^ "^ ""^ "^ '"* ^ '-^ '—^ "^ '^ "^ '"' '-^. "*. T1 '^^. '^^^ 
COCOCOCOCOCOCO'^COCO'^'^*'^*-^-^iO'^''^*-^tOtOtO^^ 

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I t I I 

OOiOOOOtOOtOOO>OiOOOOiOOtC0500tOOtOtOOOtOiOOOtO>OiOOOtOtOO 

CO tjh '^ p p p p <^i <^i f^^ TjH rj^, -^ lO p p p c^. 1^1 <>i <^ ■^. "^ ^ ^. »^ p P p p. t! tI t! v! tI '^~l '^~'. '^'. '^^. '^f^ 
cqoqc<icococococococococococo-^'"^''^'^*Tj^-^^^ 



t^C^O0i^-^0SO■^OO1-H^-OC^OTt^Or-^O00■^■«^Ol-^0^O05I>•_Ol-^(^^T}^■>!J^001-ll>OO(^^ 

Tj^05ppp-^0505ppp^ppPPPPPpt005050ip-^Pp2pp0505tq05p-^TtJOi05 

coTf^>co(^^co^'^od^>^-^(^^co^^TJ^T-^o6^-^c^"l>T-^^'od^'^c<icoodc^ 



(N (M 1— I rH 1— I 



p^^(N•^_poqoqc<^c^_couop(^^ri^^_Tt^T)^pp<^^cqoqr-^prH(^q>opcq^^ 
o o c^' ^ CO tj^ ^-^ o (^^' 00 Tf! CO c^' i-H (^^ CO >-H CO Tt^ (N i>i CO CO -^ o^ oi CO ^^ 

O. tOI>toi>c01:^Oil:^0-^CS|t^r^tOr^OOt^C^COCOTjHC^rtHcOr)H0500(N05^iOTtH05COI>to051>>cO 
tOi-t>001>'*l>00i— lOOOlOOCOOOCOCSOSCOi— IC55t— It— lcqO'^C00505C005CO(MOOOO:i'5tiC005T— lO 



00 to to CO xhi 



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CO (N 05 CD (N TjH 1-1 '^ T-l CO -^ (M CO CO to to (N Tt< •<* lO 00 CO CO 1> (MOO 



0500tOOiCOtOtOcOtOCOI>CO»OOi0^iO'*COCOT-iOOCOOO'*OOCOCOT-(COtO(M001>COO^I>^ 

oqcoi-Hosc^^Tj^copi— lcoc<^cql-J^HrH05pcopl-^co^>co^cocoooT^|pcocorHl>tOT^ 
o^-^rH(^^o5odT-^02l— icdr-HC^'i-Hcdodc^'ooii-HtotoocNooc^'r-ioitococdT^^ 

0i0iC00505C0C01>C0t000l>C0Oi— iOOcOi-iCOC^001>I>05(NCOOiOO'Tj^05(Na5050050iCO'*l>CO 

1— It— iCq I— li— li— It— IrH t— (t— I i—ICOtHt— I 



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CMCMCMCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO 



324 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 




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APPENDIX A 



325 



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^,(:ooiC<^050■^050500^»u^05(^^oi(NTJ^l>a^aD05T-H'^Tt;oiTH 

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OOvOCOCOOC01>'^COCO»0-^COt^C005COOil>COrHCOOC00005t^CO(MOi>OCOOOCOOCO(M-*000 

1-HC»l-H05l>u2T^u^I-^(^q(X)corH05rHco^c^^I-^oooo(^lco^ocoI-^co^^^co(^^»ocoo5cocococow 

l>ldT-loC506c0Qd>-HC0C5TtHi-iT-5rHCx3OTt^CDi-4.-Hc6T-HCQC^ 

t>CO'-^u^050>0(X)'-^cOC^C^'-H^*rHT^l^^OiCOl-HOOOi05COI>^Tt^T--^(X)05(^^l>CX)COOi05COcO•^1-^ 

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OtOCD(N(NC0i— ICp»7^T-HCOrHTt<T-lOOrHlOtOrHOTt<i— IrHOCOOr^ 

b^t^i>t^t^t^cxit>i>c»t^c56t^c56o66565650 

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 7*7*77 tV'Tt'Tt 77*'T'T7'T'Tt 7 t't 

OOOiOtOOOiOtO»Ot^Ot000001>.00»0»000»OOOrH»OOOOOr-HOOOtOtOO 
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cococococbcococbcococor^'t>^t^i>o6o6oc6J6565 
.Hl^qooortiTl^(^^l-lO(Ncoc^o^-l0^l-^c^^t^(^q^>c^tOl-^aiC^Tt^Ttll>050l-lTt^ooolr^O(^^l-^l> 

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(^i■^c^iI-^^o6rj^c^(^iTi^O'!J^(^^(^^c^o6c^^^co'^c6•<^Tt^c^cocoo6 

l-Hl^^l'^i— ii— ll-^l:^^THT-l(^^T-l(^^rHI-HI— It— I^HrH(^C^C^CS^C^^rHT-^l— IrHrHi— IC<1tHi— It— ii— li— It— I.-H (Nt-I(N 



(^^^ocqoc^Cl:cococOl-^I-^cqcol-^coo5^>toc^cqc^lOOl^>•o^>^T-J^>iooq 
l-H(^icdcdlococ6l6cdcotoloc6cDcdcjc^^^^>t6l-icic^i(^^^'c6co 

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CO i-TcTc^ oT to t^i-Toco" to o (^^'o Ti^"<^^Ti^'o to"orTjH~T^c^co co tjTio c^'t^To (n"co~^ 

C^i— IrHCCjT— ItN tHt— I I— It— I (N t— It-<t-It— I t-< 

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oococqo^T-JT^Tt|^'.cooooococococo1— iocso5tOrHi>i— loooii— loic^i— icOt— lOiT-iT— icorHTt|ooi> 

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326 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 









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'^!^'7l'^!^'^!^ THcqcotO(^Qtop■^_■^THlOcococototO(^^cO'^OOOrH(^qco 

c<i (fa CQ c<i oa (N <N c4 (N (N CO CO M -rjH (^^ -"ij^ -^ -^ "^ 

i—<i—ty—(y—t t— IrHrHi— I 

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 

O to O O O to rH to CO 00 to CO O O Ca O to CO O CO (M to O to O -^ as O 00 

rH rH rH rH tH tH tH (N (N (N rH Csj CO (N CO C^ CO CO CO CO CO 



SP4 



■* CO '^ rH 
to to C5i 05 



,-HTtHTjHrHCqCOO:iOOOCOOOOOO(M(MTlH(rqOTfH(N'*C^C^rHl>. 

OitOtOpptOrtHptOpOptOC^piOptOtOOStOOSOSOS-* 

c<iT)^T)^(^^'*oc6rHC^Tj^rHrHc^'^-iTj^T)^T)^(^^coT)^TJ^TJ^■^(^^co 

1— lrHrHrH(NrHrHrHrH(MrHrHrHrH(NrHCqrH(N(Mi-lCqCqrHCq 






Cq rH (N to 

•^ to CO (N 
O OiI>l> 
00 05 p^t^ 

i> lo'c^" 



C3 

C000Ol>pl>rHpC0rH(N0qC0t0p'*r^C0C0rHTtlC0rH0:>Ttl 

toocooooodrHoicDocdodcorHcooJc^'cdc^cjico'^odcoid 

(N'*TtH001>(MtOCOtO-^050tOCOI>(MOtOCOCOrHl>rjHrHTjH 

i> 05 00 Oi 00 00 TjH^ca_to^tq_p_rH^to^rH^o^cq_oq^to_o co to co o i> oo 
oq" (>r rn" co~ c«^ ccT ccT rn" o" (>q" co~ co' c^ (^^ c<r c«^ od~ o~ t-^ cT ^^ oT cT (n" r-T 

1-t CO r-^ 7-{ Oi rHi— IrHCSi— (i-H COrHrHCq rH 



Ph 
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It 



rH 00 (M rH 1> tO O CO tO (N lO (M rH l>(N 05 rH Tt< CD l-l '^ i-H> O Tht t> CO T-H O 

OiOOt^CO tOC0(NTfiC01>C0C<jpp^pppl>ptqOrH00Tt^C00iC000 

co-^tdrH otoc^od(^iooio6rHTi^^>,-^,-^,-^oio6c^'rHTj^rHoi^>oo^>^ 

1>(M 05 CO CO CO 00 00 (N 1> rH (M O rH 1> CO O to O to 00 O 05 Oi CD 00 05 CO (N 

Cq T-t CO rH Cq CO (M COy-ir-tCOr-tCOr-iC^C^i-iT-i (M 









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APPENDIX A 



327 



(NO»OeO(NOi-Hi-HT:J<Oi-H05T-HfHOCOTt^COuDOOi-H^00005COCO(X)OCOCOrHOOOCOCO(Nt^Tt< 

oq■^^^Oip>o.-HoqcqGO(»(»cqT^^po5^>.coc<^c^_poiT-^TJ^■-H^^TJ^p^ 
o6o6r4r-^cocoTi^(^^u^^>^c^"cdTt^o6u^Tf'cdo^o^-*C5cdc5T--Ic^'1-H.-^ 
^>o^>oc^oo■^r-^iOcocooo5co^-^c^!>0(Nooo(N'*ooo^>^>l— irH(NO(NOc<iioooOrH<Nc35 

(N CO (N CO C^ T-H CO lO (M coco Tt< -^ CD CO '^ i-l t-i (N lO CO (M -^ i-l CD (M CO (N ^ CO O CO t-H CO iM -^ 

p(N'^c^_pp(NTt^poq^(NpTl;;(NTt^c^p(Npc<^p(^^'^pc^_pc^^pc^^p 

COT-^(^qT-^COCOTt^(^^COrHC^'Tt^COC^Tt^(NTt^COTt^COl-^COT)^C^'^ 



cDScDCOut)i-HCOCOTt^l>Ot^Oia50:i000005>OCDi-HOi001>0'— il>00050i-icDOOI:^t^C<lOcDC<IOO 

o"-'t'-H^Hcx)pl>^c^_popppplqT-^TJ^,-^^>.T^p^>oqpcQu^cooqc^_THco1^ 
(^^^rH^Ld(^qoTt^cx)t6^^cdo6T^^c^*■^Tt^a5»^o^^oc5CD^'^Ldloo6c^^ 

0'Z^GOrHQO>00'^05 l>ait>T)HTt<COCDl>'^'*(MOOCDi-Hu:)b-(NOOiOOOiOCOCOOOOOO(M»0'*it^ 
■-'^(MrH (^'^(M T-I(N TtH(MCOCO C<J.-4(MrHTtteOrH(Ni-llOi-li-lrHTt<i-iCOeO (Nt-I(M 



co^ 



oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
cD(^^-<*(^acDcD^^•^cDcoTt^^^cD'*l>Ttll>cD^>•cD(^^cD^>Tt^cDl>cD^>cD^>cD^>ooI>(^^cD^>cDl>co 



(N »o t^ 

CO Tt^ -* 


CD • 


CO 00 CD 


CO : 



C5rHi— ICDlOi— lr-H00(MCOI>-i— lOdOLOi— II>TtlU:)COi— ICOCD 
OOOOOT-i,-li-ICq(M(M(NCOC^(NCOCOCOCO'*-^Tt^Tj< 



O ^ lO (M to O CD 

io to u:) o to o o 



|> 1> 1> 1> 1> t^ t> 1> 1> 1> 1> t^ I> 1> 1> |> I> l> 1> |> 1> 1> 1> • I> |> l> 00 1> 00 00 



00 00 



tOOOOOOOOtOtOiOOtOI>OOtOtOOOtOiOtOtOOOtOiOOOtOiOOOtOtOtOOOtO 
■^_ lO u^ p p p ,-H Y-H tH 1-H tH C^ C<J C<j CO CO CO CO -^^ -^^ -^ '^ TjH rJH 

«OcOcDl^t^l>t^t^t^t^t^I~^t^l>l>l^t^l>t^t^l> 

I I i I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 

OOOt0OC0t000tOcDC0(MtOOtOiOt^t^t0(Mt0t0Ttit0Tt<t0O00c0c005t0(Nt0O00OCDt^00 
tOiOcDcOcDcDcDcDcDl>ciDcOcOCOcDCDcDcDl>CDcDcDcOCDt^jf^l>^ 

rtic^i>oooO'--ii^'*ociTtHooi>i--ioiTtHoor-ioocQooi>i>ooc^ooc<ioooooO'^Oi-iTtiooooocoooo 

05051>i005Tti05Tt^tOOOOi(^'*pptOppp(NpprJHpoi0505050i050i005t00505pp05 
o6TJ^toc^*l-HTi^c^D6cO(NCOo6T-^COC^COCOTH(^^1--^l>^-iocOl-^ 

T— I(Nt— li— (1-* 1— l(NCQ 1— ll— li— l(MT-(T-l(NT-iT-lT— I.— Ii-H(N(M,— ll— l,-H(M,— IrHl— li— I r- 1t-Hi— li— It— lrH>— I 

_ _ 

co^>;t--^cotooqtq^>.^^p^Ol-;tqoq-^ppoq^-;ptotocooq'^_cqp^>(^^toto 
■^c5iaic6^>^cD^-^ooa5^>o6l-iTt^o6Tt^(^qTJ^c^(:DOl-io6cdc6rHC<^ajo6 

COOlCqtOOiCDCDi— il>00COC0rHCatOi— iO0QO0il>t0CDrH00C0^i-iOC<J0Ql>tO00OCDi-i00rti05 
O CO tq_to p^oo 00 i-H^05^rH "^^C<1^'^^'-1,'*^'-1'^1<^'^'^^<^1'-1P,P '^'^'"L'^'^'^'^'^^'-^'^'^^'^'^^^'^^^ 
to o"'*~o"co'~ (^rr-TrlH" 

to tH 1— I 



Tt<'*t-HrHCOOitOi-HCOC^i— IC0C01>(MC0(M00(M(M(Nc0i-HTt<OT-tC0C^C0TH 



tOOCOT-ll005C01:^i-lOt^l>'OOI>rHrHOOCDOOOCOtOTtHCOCO(NCDtOT-i(MC005'-lt^iM(MT-ltOtO 
■^p(MC0050505CDpOCDp(Mi— lOO-^l^ppOOOpt^pi-JCOpOiOCOCDtOCDC^CDrHOJOOCOCD 

^^l>coT-^l-^Ol-^corHl-^o6cooto(xjoa^^^O(^^ocooo6co(^5^>^td 
^>■0'-lOcDtooorH^>(^qco^>cq0505cDoo(^^otoTt^cDcototoT--lrJ^rt^to^>lO(^^co(^^05(^^o:)too(^^ 

tOrHCO C^ 1—1 i-HCQ T— li— ii— It— li— li— I ,— li— 4(M t— < 



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coco 'cooi>co'^cdc6r-I-<^co 



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(NO rH r^ CO '^i Tti CO 1— I 00 rH r^ 

tO'*^ -pcop-^^pc^ipcopco 

oi l> I C^* T-i O (N Tin ,-i (N TjH oi 1-i 

to 1—1 • to 1— I -^ CO to 1> to T-I to i-< 



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to CO p oq to 

CO -^ rt^* 05 CD 
Cq OOtO 00 (N 



iOOOt001>toc<100iC^0001>tOiOOOOOtOOOOOi— lOCOtOtOt^TtH-^CDOOOtOtOt^tOTtfCOt^ 
«0O"^C0t0T-lC0t01> COtOtOtOCOCOtO'^COTtiOOtOtOtOrtlCO'^tO'^COTt^tOCNiCOCD^COTt^CO"^ 

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COTt^TjHTflrJicOiOtOtO 



328 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



SWBMOJTX 

snoau'B:^Ti'B:^sui 


Tt<oc^-^c^O'-io<0(^:)coocoioo5i>-o5t^iocOTtH05to'*(NOiooTtHu:»ioo 
cO(^^c^_^-lO^>^cqlOou^THOc^(X)cooi^>oooieo>o^>cooO(^^col:Dl— t'^coio 


coldodcoa5^^u:jo6^^oo5C<^coo"u:^l-HoeoG6coTl^o6cot>oj>ot^ 

»Ot^05(MCOC01>'*OrHOi00051>OOtOO(MiOO:iO>^(MiOO(rOOiOCO-<*' 


aq.nuTr/V^ jad 8tij\r 


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oox Jad s:^:^'BAvo|i\i 


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CMCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO'^Tf'^Tti-^tOtOOOrHT-I^C^ICOCOCO^-^^tOOO 




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CMt-H 1— Ii— 1tH05 r-li— IrH i— (i—l CM i— 1 CMi— IrHCM i— IrHCM CMCM 








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(xrcM''r4'co">j:rco"-<*"cM"T--rcM"co rH'T-TcD-^r-TcxTr-rco' i>ij:r»o"Tir TjTco'tC IQ 

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T— ( I— ICMi— t T— 1 I— ( 1— It— 1 -H t— 1 r-H CM»0 rHi-HCM i— Ir-I 




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rt< T-H i-H CO CO rH to 00 CO O OiOi'^COcOCM -O -^05 p -co 


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Ex. Sub. Floss.- Rand. 
Add. Pass. - Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Freeport Div. I. C- 12th 
Pass. W. C. - 12th 
Bus. Men's Spec. Floss.- Rand. 
Ex. Sub. Gr. Cross.- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Burnside - Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Burnside - Rand. 
Ex. Sub. Bl. Is.- Rand. 
Ex. Sub. 67th - Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Pass. M. C. Kens.- Rand. 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Ex. Sub. Floss.- Rand 
Loc. Sub. Gr. Cross.- Rand. 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Pass. I. C. Floss.- 12th 
Ex. Sub. Bl. Is.- Rand. 
Freeport Div. I, C. Pass.- 12th 
Ft. I. C. Floss.- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn- 12th 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago.- Rand. 
Pass. W. C. - 12th 
Ft. I. C. Floss.- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Pass. I. C. Floss. - 12th 
Ex. Sub. Harvey - Rand. 




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BJJ, 


TtH CO 00 CM Tf^ CD 00 O CM CO 00 O CM CD 00 O ■<* CO O tH CO 00 CM 51 5g 9S £3 3£ 5S 
CMCMC<ICOCOCOCOTtH'^'*^iOtOtOiCCOCOC01>l>t^t^OO 000000 O5O505 



APPENDIX A 



329 



Oi^-rHOi>^>0(^:)C00500Tt^I-^OC<^OO^^lOTt^OTt^(^^(^^OTt^'+llOrt^OcO•^l— iQOO'*'*CO»OOiO 

pcCI--^p■^c»cO(^^rH(^oprH05coc^(^^■^_TJ^eoo5TJ^coc<l(^^oq 

oi -^ Tj^' o5 c^' t^ >o ^^ 05 ^^ oi o 00 1> 00 CO c^' c^" oi cvi rH 00 r-H id o i-H ^ 
eolOTJ^(^5U5c^tocoou^oooTtlu^^^TH(^^u^t^oOlOl-^rH^>(^out»l>ut»occoolOu^(^^(^^u^ou:lOu5 

iMi-<C0(Nt-HCOi— IC0r-(r-lTt^CO T-HTt^TtHUDrHt^tJCOrHCO'^THCOi— ICOi— lT-HCO(Nr-l(NCOTfrHt--lrHlOi-H 

Tt^oq(^^TJ^oqc<^oq(^^poqc^TJHoqoqc^(NC<^oqc^(^^oqc^_(^^Tj^T:t^oq(N 

C^' rt^ TJH C^ rJH --^i^ tJH T^ CO Ti^* Ti^ C^ r-i -^ r-J TjH T-i Ttl rl^ rH rt^ rH t}H 

(^^rtl(^^(^qTfooi^>o^l-HOl>OrH(^^oooTtlrt^oo^>c^oooto^^ot^(N'*oo50C<^oo^>(^^T^^TH■rt^ 

OOl>Ol-HO'^O0iTJ^»i:)l>OTt^C^OC0rHt0OC0C000C000O0iOTt^O1-^l0TtJTHppl>.rHC0T-^ 

05 c<i o !> T-H oj i^q CO 00 CO 00 c^" ic CO 00 o Tj^* rH u^ o o 00 oi i> ^^ o o o^ 
05i>ooii>oor»oio:)i>oocoooi>t^'*i--ti>'COt^i>ocooocoi>.oi>i>05rHt^Ttiooi>i>t-ib-ooi>> 

CQ (M rH 1-H CO lO '^ (N O (M CO CO (N r-l CO T-H T-H r-l (N CO tH "^ 

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
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oi (N (fq (N 



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r1 'TI '^i '^^. '^^ T*l 'f? "r^ 9; Tl ^. '^f^ '^9. '%^ 1*1 T*t ^ '^ 95 T! r1 T! '^^ "^^^ 

r^' rH T^* rH T^* tH T^' r^' rH (N (N (fq (N (fq (fq 05 (N 



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1*1 1*1 "* ^ "t^ Itt *?? <^ ^. T^t '^^. l*t T*l 95 ^^ *r^ p. '^S Tl '^^ 1*1 V! '^i ^ ^ 

6i 6i 05 OS O 6i O O OJ O O O 6i T-H O rH O T^* rH O i-H rH i-H 1-H (^^ 



OOi-iOOrt<Oi-H(MO(Nt>-(NOTtHTH(NOT^C<IO'*rHOOOI^OCOT-l0005'<*it^OTHO(MO 
O0505O05050i0iO05p'^p05U0Opppppi0p>OO05O05i005OC5OCb'^03i0050>05 

T-H^^(^qrH|>o6^>(^^^'^^'*coTJ^^>T:tic<^Tt^^>Io6T)^l>T;f^(^jc^^ 

1—1 1— (i— I T-H 1-HCq (N(N(N 1— li— l(N i-H(M ,— I,— 1,-It-H (M tHtHi— I T-lrHCq rH C<) 

00 lO 00 00 00 lO O CO CO CO TtH 00 '^ ^ io O ic 00 CO O 00 CO 00 

T}HTt|lOTtJC^_rHp'^_lOlOp(NCOU^ppJ>C^^OO-TtH_poqrHCOTJHpTtHCOCOTt^^ 

o'ol>^o"aj^>c005COt^005CO^^rHTJ^uooicOCOCOTt^cOOCDCOo6cOo'cO^^ 

050CD0500COOOrHrHUr5THlOrHi— I'^rHOOOiOOOi— ICQOST^OOfNOOrHOClOOJCOOOOqOOCOOOOiOO 

Tjj 05 00 TjH^oo i-j^os oq^co 05 lo^co oq^os o TtH^i>^oo t^^^io^oo os^'^^rH '^^oo -^^oo oq_i>_05^oo co^o^^cq^oo i> oo oq^oo 
(M* c^c^" ■*" oq~co »d~coc^ coco»d~ co~co id'co'fNco -^ i-Tc^Tc^ co'-^oT lo co 



CO CO »o 



CO CO 
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(MCOCOC<JCOCOC01^(Mt>00051>l>cqOOiCOC<100»Or^T-HO>OiOcOiOiOT-i COiOC^TjHiCOcOOOCO 

p^-Hpo^>pco(^^ca^>coco^-^^>lO■Tt^_co^>;coou^c^^ppoq^OlOu^c^^cOl-H(^ 
05c^'rH05,--^o6c^o^c^"^^co^^c^o6o6ldrHoajl-HLd^^co^^rHodl-Hldo5o6^ 

OseOOOOiCOt^COOO-^COOSOOCQCOOSOSCOCOOlrHCOCOOit^COCOOOCO-^t^i-ICOOt^t^COOOCOOqCO 

CqCO'^COCQi— I 1— It-It— I T-i 



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c^c<lco(^^c<JlO(Nco^^(^^»OTt^oc<^cocooc^'*oc^cocococ^(^^lOc<^^co(^qc<^co»OlO(^^co(^^lO(^^ 

tH rH t— I 

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O O O O rH rH (M cq (M CO CO "^ Tfi -"^ tJH lO lO 10 10 CO CO CO t» 

(N (M oq csi oq oq (M c<j (?q c^ c^ oq (N (N cq c^ <rq cq cq (cq c^ oq oq 



rj^ 00 o cq Tt^ CO cq coocq 

1> 1> 00 00 00 00 05 05 o o 

cq cq cq cq cq cq cq cq co co 



330 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



s(j:^'BAioxT;3 
snoauB^^UBC^sxij 


l-H{^:)lLOTt^c^u305T-Hc^^o:>l-^cO'-^Tt^eo(^^c<^01-^'*(^^05ooTt^GO(^^^>.-lTJ^TJ^o 
rHcv:)■^^>»oo5C^_OlC>o^';(NOT}^l--;uicoc^_Tj^co»ot^o-*l>u:l(^^Tt^l>l— iio 

CO CO T— 1 (^s 1-^ ^ CO CO rH rH (^:) Ti^ lo 1— 1 CO 1— 1 CO i-H c^ I— 1 i-H rfi Tti c<i t-h ^^ (n c^ os (M 


uox J8d s^^^M.6]i5j; 


(N(Noq(^^oq'*(^JTt;«5ri^c^c^_T}^oqc^oqc^_Tt^c^^(^qoq(^^o 

■^ -^ ^' '^ T^' C^" Tt^ (N '^ (N i-H ^" (>i T^ TjH '** r)^ C<i rH rH Tt ■^' CO 


Tiny; uo 'si^ 


C0i-<-^a>0000(MT-H00C0OC0C000c000'*O(:0OG0iCC0OiO00C0O00iO'!ti 

I>l-HrHco^>05C>^^^^l^;»OLqcocDcD^>.oicoc<^ot^ot^rHoo^>^><^^0(^^o 

oaii-HCJoi»do5cda>idido6cdoi:doii-Hi><^rHOJo6cdo6Gioii-Hcou^ 

ooi^>loocooirH(r>(^^Ttl^>o:ll>ocDOioOTtlOO(^^^>---:(^^cooi(^^coTt^lo 

(M tH (N (M 1-1 <M 1-1 >0 CO (M t-I cq coco (N <M t-^ COi-* y-i^i-i 


8TTW "OX -13^1 "SJH 


ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
i>i>ooi>oo-*i>"'*ooTttcqi>'^oot^ooi>'!ticqcaoot^cO'*coooi>Tt^oO'*i>- 


'^v atnix p9AJ8sqo 


(M (N T-i CO O ^ CO (M r-( U5 O Oq T-l CO CO 1-1 T^i ! ! i-l O CO Tt^ irJHOiO^S "S 
(N T^' <N (N (N C4 Oq CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO ; ; CO '^ '^ '^ ; -^ -^ -* '^ ^ | '^ 






1 

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00>^OtCiOO(N^tOOOO>^OiOO(MOi-i^OOOTtHvOOOiO>^0 
C^^CO'<+i^kOprHT^_i-^C^_C^COCOTtiuOOOi— ii-^T^. C^IC^COCOCO'* 

oaT^"c<i(N(Ncqcocococococococococo-^-^ 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

iOtOt^I>l>OiOC<llr^iOtOO>J^l>»01>0(N^01>iOO^'=^t>COOt>'0^ 

'^ O O '^ (N (N C<! CO ^ CO CO CO »0 O O (N T-; CO to 

rH T^' (N tII (fq (N cq cq oq (fq th (fq (N CO CO CO CO 


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(Mr-io^oo5i-icoococqi>c7iOT-io^ooioqoi-icoocoocqo500i-t 

OiOia3ai0005iCCiLqOiOC0505050itqTtH05050iiOO»OCi05pOiiOO^ 

(^i(^q^>o6t^coc^io^>OT}^ocol>c^^>^o6c^coTt^^^cMO.-Io^^'^co^>^c^^ 

1— li— 1 1—1 1— li— li— < l-H(NCqi-H 1—1 1— li— ItHC^ 1— li— It— tr-H Cqi— 1 i— li— 1 


Total 
Ton 

Miles 


lo 00 o o o o o o o o o ^ o lo o o o o o o lo o o o o oq o coo lO 

iC^C<1t— iC^^i-<l>C^C^O2>OO5^'*C^iOiOQ0C35C^OiT-(Ttii— iCqrHi-JOiCOr-j 

^'^Tt^o^Tt^(^io5co^^(^qco■^^>o6cooic^ooc^'oic<^Tt^(^^c<ilCc^^ 
coTt<oocqi>^'*i-ii>^i>oooooi>i>oicDt^i>i-iT-iico5i^05ooa50ocq 
oq^oq^oo (M^oo co oo tjh^oo '-l<>i'*„'*,oo oq^oo rH^rH^-^^o^oo ^^^co o c:5 oo "O^o^co co^cq^ 
cq"c<r '^'^ co'cq'id" c<:ri>"ioi> (>r rj^cq^iCicr co^rj^c^" ^co'i-Tco'cq" 

oq 1-1 1—1 tH 





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coi>coo»ooococqioooco>ot^ior^iOi-HO'*cqioi>ooootocoi>t^oiOi 
O5c^i>;t>i-;c^cqoii-;>ot>.i— icoiocqi— i^ooocOi— i^ocoi— looi-ii— icoiLOooco 
i-J T-l i-I oi i-H oi T-I CO th 00 ci 00 i-i 1-1 o" 1-5 CO CO c^' CO T-! ^>I id GO Ti^ T-i c^ 

0000C01>C00000C0C01>iOOi-IC000C000I>.C0^C005i-li-ICqc00iOC00iCO 
1— li— 1 Cqi— iC<l C^i— 1 1— li— 1 rHCO 




■^ 00 CQ -^ i-H -t^ • rH • • lo • 1-1 00 1-i 00 • • -1-11-4 • • • 1-1 oq -co -oo 
coajO'*-^^ -Oi "* • -OS -ooos-^p • • --^00 • • •■^. o -lo -co 

cdidi-icD ' iid ; ' ; !o6 i '-^ 'cd ! i i "^d ! i ! '06 ir-J irj^ 


'Ho 


Oi 05 T}H CO '^ -OS • Tt4 • • Cq • Tt^ 05 rt^ CO • • • Ttl CO • • "^ -^ • rH • i-t 

cqcqt^(Mi> cq •!> • -^ t^cqt^co • • t^t^ • • i^:^ -p -p 

idtdocoo .10 .0 • .05 .oioc!i> . . .Oi-i . .' .ooi .oJ .cjj 

I>t>C01>C0 •!> -co • • ••C0l>C01> • • • CO 05 • • • CO 00 -^ -"3 


S8:^nUT] 

nn'a JO ara 




LOIOOOCOOOIOVOOOOOIOOIOOOIOOOOO»0>000>00100001>000»0>0 

cococq>ocqcofOTtic<jTt<oioco<cqcoc^iocoi>ocqco'*c^'ti(Nioco(Ncoeo 
1—1 1— t 


un^ JO noi^oajio; 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^"^^ 


I? 
o 

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PS 
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Ex. Sub. So. Chicago- Rand. 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. So. Chicago- Rand. 
Ex. Sub. Bl. Is.- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Pass. M. C. Kens.- 12th 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Pass. Equipt. Burnside - 12th 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Pass. Equipt. Burnside - 12th 
Ft. I. C. Floss.- Rand. 
Ex. Sub. Harvey -Rand. 
Pass. M. C. Kens.- 12th 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Ex. Sub. Bl. Is.- Rand. 
Add. Pass. Rand. 
Ft. I. C. Floss.- Fordham Y. 
Ft. I. C. Floss.- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Burnside - 12th 
Pass. Freeport Div. I. C- 12th 
Eng. Burnside - 12th 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Ex. Sub. Floss.- Rand. 
Pass. M. C. Kens.- 12th 
Loc. Sub. Woodlawn - Rand. 
Ft. Freep't I. C- Rand. 
Ex. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 


*ON ° 


^•li 


TtH^oooTHcoo Tf* CO oq CO 00 c^q Tj^ CO oooc^co P'^'*'=S££^ 

a> rH r-i r-H cq cq CI CO CO CO CO Tt^ Tt^ rfH t:^io>OiO CO CO CO CO CO r-- 
COC-ICOCOCOCOCO CO cocococococococo cocococo cocococococo 



APPENDIX A 



331 



T*io01>(Nl>(Nl>l^CO)>i— iCOi— lOsr^CO-^COCOiOCOO^OiOOSi— l05OI>C0t>-00»OC0T-(Tt^(Ni— irHCO 

^»05^ocoTt^oooocoou:)loo5c^ooO'^Ol-^I>'-^oooquDlOlOu^05^^1-Joq^-;TJ^^^cO'^^H 
ldrH-odcicda5C^'I>o6^^o6c6o6lC^>Io-cocdrt^-couDcdI>»J:jcou:3co^>T)^ 

OOU^OC^OTtH0505C005Tt^tOrHTf^05(NOOOOiOOOi"^C005COir-ICOrH005THTjHC^CO(:005i-HTtlr-lr-< 
(N (N CO O rH -^ (M (N C^ i-H ■* CO (N TtKM (M CO (M CO CO (N (N -rt^ (N CO (N '^ -^ »0 C^ (M (N lO CO CO 

ooTt^co(N■^ooc^c^c^_CQ^oq(^^TJ^oq(Noq'^coc^(^qTi^(X)TJ^(^qcqc^^cq■^ 

rj^ C^- CO '^ (^i -^ ■^' '^ r-H ■^- rt^ TtH C^- T-i --^ T:t^ (N CO -^ TJ^ C<J '^IH C^^ 

lOoorHOcooOI-lC<^c^c<^rHcOTt^coc^coocOl-^oooTt^(^^c^Oi0050l— icoo5^co>oco»0'^oocoi-i 
eoos^>05I>^*^l-^^^l— <cout)005i-<'*<-Htooii>THooi— lOicorHco-^coT-Hcoooi-HTtHi— icoooo505>^ 

CO rH id o CO ai^-^oioo5ajc6cdco'cjcdo6o6oitd^^rH-Tt^o^>o^>^I-^c^T-H-coajo6o^(^Q 
couococ»03cooooo^-ooco»^oocoooo5TH^^(^^co>ococ<^^-o:>coo505Tt^05(^^(^^coo5050corH■^Ti^ 

T-IlM CqCO (N ^ Tfli-H tHi— lr-H(MCO rHC^(MrHCOT-l(M(N(M(M lOrHCQrHrHCOC^CO 



oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 

00'^C01>'*001>t^<Ml>001>'*COI>00'^COt^l>'*00'*l>COl>CD^COr>'^COI>COCOCOCO'^riHCO 



O t^l— l|>OTtHt^C^T-HOi— It— lOlCOi— I 

u5 •id»dcoid»d>oioioibcoco'Ooco 



;05(Ni0C0OOC0OC00ii— iFHt^U0TtHiO»O(N00C0OrH00 
• p. T! r1 Tl <^^. 1*^ '%f^ 1*1 ^ P '^^. '\!^ '^?. ?5 l*i l*t "!^ 95 "t? Tl <^! *\f^ "^ 

•<i>cbcbcococbcococoi>i>t^t^(X)t~^i>i>c»c» 



^0000»000(MiOiOOO-*(M>OiOOO'*iOu:>00>J^iOtOOO>OuOO'*u:)OiOOOOOOO 

icidtoio»dioid>did»didcbcocococococbcococbcbcoco 
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 

l>OOt^C01>uO(Nl>t>-l>0»005'^l>000>OCOOit>0»OOCOOCOTlHOOO'<^0>OOCOLOiOCO,X 
■^(^q'*(N•^OOCOOCO(NOCNTy^_^Or^ 

•^T)^'^Ttl'^id»d>dc^ioibio^io^io»d'Oioib»ocooidco 



o^^coTt^^^OrHOc^oo(^^05oooooTt^l-lT^ltoo^>T^^l-l^>I-ll>Tt^TH■^co(^^rH-^t^rtl,-l05^^'^ 

05'*Ut)05■^0505'*05TJ^Oi05pOi■^050>OOi050i0^^^0505005-^a^OilO>005050 

^^cooocco^>c<^o6Tt^o6^>^'*cOl-^o6l>r-^Ti^(^qo6o6J>u^o6c^-0(^^-c^ 

(Mi-(tHC^ rH (M CqrHrH rHT-lT-HrH T-lrHT-<CqT-l(MT-lT-<rHT— ((Ni-lrHrH,— IrHC^JrH 

■rt* 00 (N CO lO Tti Tt^ C^ O Th Tt^ CO O CO lO O CO O 00 O ioloTo io io 

00Tt^^H^-C0C^C^l-J0irHC0Tt^_05rH1-Jp■^0^'^I>l0prHC0OC00irHTt^Tt^0qI-^ 

cocouDldod(^i^^c6uoc6c6aioc^-cold(^q-ldTi^-cD^>^cocoO'*-'^■^t^ 

C00505l0rHl>Ol:^C0t>C0t^>OC0t^»O>Ol>0005C^C^Ol>O5'*0500C0>O0005rH(N00lO>-lTtiCql> 
C00:iOrH0500i-HC^lO(N00TtHCOi— IOa'*050i(>1I>'*OCOOO(NrHC<|(rqOrHl005i-<COOOU01>05C^l> 



CO 



1-1 -^ 05 -^ 1-1 CO • 



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332 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



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rHi— ic^i— it-i(Mi— iT-iT-i(M(?qi— ii-icqi— i(N 


Total 
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Miles 


to O lO to to o 
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1.56' 

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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


1 
1 

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IS 


Pass. M. C. Kens.- -12th. 
Loc. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Pass. I. C. Floss.- 12th. 
Equipt. Burnside- 12th. 
Pass. Freeport Div. I.C- 12th 
Loc. Sub. Floss.- Rand. 
Pass. W. C- 12th 
Ft. M. C. Kens.- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Ft I. C. Floss.- Rand. 
Ft. I. C. Floss.- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Bl. Is.- Rand. 
Eng. Burnside - Rand. 
Ft. I. C. Floss.- Rand. 
Loc. Sub. So. Chicago - Rand. 
Loc. Sub. Floss.- Rand. 


•ON 


UTt 


'■II, 


C^ (M '^ COO(M Tfi CO O 00 (N 
1> 00 00 00 Oi 05 05 05 O Oi O 



APPENDIX B 



333 



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ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 





































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APPENDIX B 



335 



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ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



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C35 







APPENDIX B 



337 




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344 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



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APPENDIX C 

STATISTICS OF RAILROADS ENTERING CHICAGO: 

^^WNote: — The matter contained in Appendix C, is compiled from Poor's Manual, 
1908, from the current report of the Illinois Warehouse and Grain Commission, and 
from the records of the county clerk of Cook County. Discrepancies in the mileage 
as given exist. No attempt has been made to correct the discrepancies as the entire 
and the Illinois mileages are given merely to show the relative importance of the roads 
and the relative importance to each road of its mileage within Illinois. For such 
purpose approximations are sufficient. The mileage within the city of Chicago is that 
returned by the railroads for purposes of taxation and is presumably accurate. 



ROADS ENTERING DEARBORN STATION 






A.T. &S.F. 


c. & W. I. 


C. I. & L. 


Erie 


Gr'd Trunk 


Wabash 


Length of line oper- 














ated in U. S. inclu- 














sive of trackage 














rights. Miles 


10,520.46 


27.27 


599.76 


2168.85 


335.75 


2,514.30 


Mileage owned, 111., 














main track 


282.95 


48.58 






25.83 


669.20 


Mileage owned, III., 






2d &c. main track . . 


77.13 


81.37 






25.83 


80.70 


Mileage owned. 111., 






industrial tracks 


11.86 










4.94 


Mileage owned. 111., 










yards & sidings . . 


136.57 


121.95 




26.21 


45.43 


246.40 


Mileage owned. 111., 






total 


508.51 


251.90 




26.21 


97.09 


1,001.24 


Mileage owned, Chi- 




cago, main track. . 


7.37 


25.16 






8.52 


4.92 


Mileage owned, Chi- 






cago, 2d main track 


5.91 


25.16 






8.52 


4.92 


Mileage owned, Chi- 






cago, yards&sidings 


43.82 


99.71 






26.25 


28.68 


Mileage owned, Chi- 














cago, total 


57.10 


150.03 


None 


None 


43.29 


38.52 


Revenue from passen- 














ger service, Illinois. 


$1,311,359 


$105,724 


$103,935 


$82,590 


$297,241 


$2,544,787 


Revenue per passen- 














ger per mile, Illinois 


$0.01882 


$0.00865 


$0.020270 


$0.01033 


$0.01412 


$0.01866 


Passenger earnings 














per train mile, 111. 


$1.09140 


$0.9993 


$1.13552 


$0.90608 


$1.80780 


$1.13321 


Proportion to total 














earnings, Illinois . . 


23.5% 


95.8% 


42% 


24.6% 


52.9% 


31.1% 


Freight revenue, 111.. 


$4,132,566 





$139,247 


$251,021 


$263,617 


$5,575,225 


Freight revenue, per 














ton mile, Illinois. 


$0.01084 




$0.00811 


$0.00450 


$0.00629 


$0.00556 


Freight earnings, per 














train mile, Illinois 


$3.63253 




$2.44362 


$2,39000 


$1.89262 


$2.04031 


Proportion to total 














earnings, Illinois . . 


74% 




56.5% 


75% 


46.9% 


68.3% 


Total earnings per 














train mile, Illinois . . 


$2.43864 




$1.66721 


$1.64607 


$1.85031 


$1.65337 


Total operating ex- 














penses per train 














mile, Illinois 


$1.57580 


$1.09804 


$1.23582 


$1.29214 


$1.28730 


$1.26295 



345 



346 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 





A. T. & S. F. 


C. & W. I. 


C. I. & L. 


Erie 


Gr'd Trunk 


Wabash 


Proportion operating 














expenses to earn- 














ings from opera- 














tion, Illinois .... 


64.6% 




74.1% 


78.5% 




76.3% 


Passenger earnings 














per mile road 


$4,517 




$5,173 


$4,132 


$9,692 


$3,419 


Freight earnings per 














mile road 


$14,236 




$7,002 


$12,577 


$8,595 


$7,490 


Gross earnings per 












mile road 


$19,215 


$6,650 


$12,373 


$16,738 


$18,322 


$10,965 


Average compensa- 












tion of engineers 


$4.87 


$3.62 


$3.73 


$3.79 


$4.05 


$4.41 


Average compensa- 














tion of firemen .... 


$2.89 


$2.16 


$2.16 


$2.33 


$2.25 


$2.62 


Total revenue train 














mileage 


2,207,352 


105,799 


147,387 


203,264 


303,700 


4,936,061 


Total non-revenue 














train mileage 


158,192 


8,923 




56,931 


94,746 


1,417,978 


Coal consumed per 














mile in pounds, 














passenger 


94.50 


154.15 


106.98 


116.66 


100.35 


97.43 


Coal consumed per 














mile in pounds. 














freight 


206.64 




188.88 


201.48 


160.39 


175.18 


Coal consumed per 




mile in pounds. 














switching 


97.83 


74.49 


96.69 


109.71 


103.88 


137.70 


Coal consumed per 














mile in pounds, 














average 


148.83 


11.415 


139.04 


154.29 


113.40 


141.29 


K^ T Vi^'-I^^V^ ••• 

Average cost of coal 




at distributing point 


$1.52 


$1.88 


$1.38 


$1.80 


1.80 


$1.40 



APPENDIX C 



347 



ROADS ENTERING UNION STATION 



Length of line operated in 
United States inclusive of 
trackage rights, miles 

Mileage owned, Illinois, main 
track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, sec- 
ond and main track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, in- 
dustrial track 

Milleage owned, Illinois, 
yards and sidings 

Mileage owned, Illinois, total 

Mileage owned, Chicago,main 
track 

Mileage owned, Chicago, sec- 
ond main track 

Mileage owned,Chicago,yards 
and sidings 

Mileage owned, Chicago, total 

Revenue from passenger ser- 
vice, Illinois 

Revenue per passenger per 
mile, Illinois 

Passenger earnings per train 
mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 
Illinois 

Freight revenue, Illinois .... 

Freight revenue, per ton 
mile, Illinois 

Freight earnings, per train 
mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 
Illinois 

Total earnings per train mile 
Illinois 

Total operating expenses per 
train mile, Illinois 

Pro. operating expenses to 
earnings from operation. 111 

Pass, earnings per mile road.. 

Freight earnings permile road 

Gross earnings per mile road.. 

Average compensation of en- 
gineers 

Average compensation of fire- 
men 

Total revenue train mileage. . 

Total non-revenue train mile- 



age. 



Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, passenger 

Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, freight 

Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, switching 

Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, average 

Average cost of coal at dis 

tributing point , 



C. &A. C. B. «feQ. C.M.&St. P. P.F.W.ifeC 



970.33 
682.71 
150.20 



260.95 
1,093.86 

7.11 

7.11 

32.60 

46.82 

$3,332,027 

$0.02025 

$1.43101 

33.2% 
$6,580,177 

$0.00568 

$2.80055 

65.7% 

$2.15617 

$1.29905 

60.2% 

$4,720 

$9,321 

$14,181 

$4.32 

$2.61 
$4,642,975 

4,226 
112.95 
209.72 
107.30 
149.77 

$1.01 



8,875.07 

1,652.32 

229.02 



750.70 
2,632.04 

5.67 

5.67 

80.17 
91.51 

$5,942,893 

$0.01969 

$1.41572 

26% 
15,703,838 

$0.00647 

$3.00266 

68.9% 

$2.43813 

$1.89650 

77.8% 

$3,536 

$9,344 

$13,558 

$4.11 

$2.61 
9,345,805 

17,566 

92.00 

206.00 

101.00 

144.00 

$1.64 



7,410.82 
412.26 
205.41 



308.82 
926.49 

28.85 

25.81 

103.01 
157.67 

2,448,655 



$1.5917 

23% 
^8,144,773 



$3.31759 

76.7% 

$2.34518 

$1.28357 

54.7% 

$5,073 

$16,875 

$22,000 

$3.93 

$2.49 
4,527,660 



87.66 
125.67 

91.47 
108.07 

$2.13 



482.28 
29.40 
31.26 



74.54 
140.70 

23.85 

13.62 

89.96 
123.43 

$243,213 

$0.01824 

$1.08832 

21.6% 
$723,262 

$0.00630 

$2.51733 

64.3% 

$2.19915 

$4.36643 

199% 

$7,853 

$23,354 

$36,271 

$3.66 

$2.38 
510,789 

47,221 

68.74 

155.57 

116.41 

115.21 

$1.45 



P.C.C.&&.L. 



1,471.52 
40.35 
28.03 



79.11 
147.49 

27.30 

24.95 

74.23 
126.48 

$190,662 

$0.01957 

$1.30787 

21% 
$591,879 

$0.00619 

$2.43560 

65.4% 

$2.33226 

$2.79493 

119% 

$6,804 

$19,502 

$29,816 

$3.67 

$2.21 
387,996 

27,400 

89.59 

179.56 

106.82 

135.40 

$1.20 



348 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



ROADS ENTERING LA SALLE ST. STATION 



Length of line operated in 
United States inclusive of 
trackage rights miles 

Mileage owned, Illinois, main 
track 

Mile-^ge owned, Illinois, second 
&c. main track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, indus 
trial track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, yards 
and sidings 

Mileage owned, Illinois, total. 

Mileage owned, Chicago, main 
track 

Mileage owned, Chicago, second 
main track 

Mileage owned, Chicago, yards 
and sidings 

Mileage owned, Chicago, total. . . 

Revenue from passenger service, 
Illinois 

Revenue per passenger, per mile, 
Illinois . 

Passenger earnings per train 
mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 
Illinois 

Freight revenue, Illinois 

Freight revenue, per ton mile, 
Illinois 

Freight earnings, per train mile, 
Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 
Illinois 

Total earnings per train mile, 
Illinois 

Total operating expenses, per 
train mile, Illinois 

Proportion operating expenses 
to earnings from operation, 
Illinois 

Passenger earnings per mile road 

Freight earnings per mile road 

Gross earnings per mile road . . 

Average compensation of engi- 
neers 

Average compensation of fire- 
men 

Total revenue train mileage 

Total non-revenue train mileage 

Coal consumed per mile in 
pounds, passenger 

Coal consumed per mile in 
pounds, freight 

Coal consumed per mile in 
pounds, switching 

Coal consumed per mile in 
pounds, average 

Average cost of coal at distribu- 
ting point 



C. & E. I. 


C.I. &s. 


C.R.I. &P. 


L.S.&M.S. 


N.Y.C. &S.L. 


957.10 


340.24 


7,938.06 


1,520.35 


523.02 


568.45 


127.61 


364.10 


14.02 


9.96 


141.46 


5.33 


206.41 


8.69 


1.37 


52.21 










310.89 
1073.01 


59.12 
142.06 


300.04 
870.55 


73.85 
96.56 


31.30 
42.63 






18.42 


5.71 


8.70 






17.52'! 


5.71 




None 


None 


76.99 
112.93 


73.85 

85.27 


29.51 
38.21 


$1,716,441J 

r 


$87,100 


$2,898,022 


$589,089 


$58,895 


$0.02074 


$0.02047 


$0.01844 


$0.01859 


$0.01190 


$1.03819 


$0.53514 


$1.19339 


$1.62773 


$1.32750 


17.3% 
$7,656,571 


6.97% 
$1,040,412 


29.9% 
$6,366,850 


42.8% 
$560,485 


43.1% 
$77,364 


$0.00480 


$0.00625 


$0.00841 


$0.00782 


$0.00914 


$2.77060 


$2.31190 


$3.95899 


$8.79358 


$1.88697 


77.3% 


83.2% 


65.7% 


40.8% 


56.7% 


$2.24213 


$2.03931 


$2.42917 


$3.22716 


$1.59791 


$1.44650 


$1.44802 


$1.52010 


$2.38667 


$1.33626 


64.5% 

$3,020 

$13,469 

$17,421 


71% 

$629 

$6,953 

$8,352 


63.5% 

$7,955 
$17,476 
$26,953 


73.9% 
$42,018 
$39,977 
$97,976 


83% 
$3,123 

$4,102 

$7,232 


$5.04 


$4.52 


$4.02 


$4.64 


$4.11 


$3.20 

4,416,795 

277,677 


$2.79 

612,785 

30,507 


$2.59 
3,977,947 
138,018 


$2.83 
625,646 


$2.43 
85,346 
5,608 


94.48 


90.65 


105.69 


102.94 


90.50 


219.27 


208.90 


202.61 


211.87 


165.15 


147.62 


114.20 


118.48 


120.51 


94.50 


169.31 


170.40 


135.05. 


119.30 


102.20 


$1.07 


$1.94 


$2.03 


$1.69 


$1.65 



APPENDIX C 
ROADS ENTERING CENTRAL STATION 



349 



Length of line operated in 
United States inclusive of 
trackage rights miles 

Mileage owTied, Illinois, main 
track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, second 
and main track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, in- 
dustrial track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, yards 
and sidings 

Mileage owned, Illinois, total. 

Mileage owned, Chicago, main 
track 

Mileage owned,Chicago, second 
main track 

Mileage owned, Chicago, yards 
and sidings 

Mileage owned, Chicago, total . 

Revenue from passenger ser- 
vice, Illinois 

Revenue per passenger per 
mile, Illinois 

Passenger earnings per train 
mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 
Illinois 

Freight revenue, Illinois 

Freight revenue, per ton mile, 
lUinois 

Freight earnings, per train 
mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 
Illinois 

Total earnings per train mile, 
Illinois 

Total operating expenses per 
train mile, Illinois 

Proportion operating expenses 
earnings from operation, 
Illinois 

Passenger earnings per mile 
road 

Freight earnings per mile road 

Gross earnings per mile road . . . 

Average compensation of engi- 
neers 

Average compensation of fire- 
men 

Total revenue train mileage . . . 

Total non-revenue train mile- 



C. C. & L. 



C.C.C.&St.L. 



254 
3.04 



.35 
3.39 



None 

$3,418 
50.01579 
50.41260 

16.1% 

$17,777 

50.00669 
51.83913 
83.7% 
51.18312 
51.25950 

107% 



age. 



Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, passenger 

Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, freight 

Coal consumed ^er mile in 

pounds, STN'itching 

Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, average 

Average cost of coal at dis 

tributing point 



$3,314 

$3,970 



17,950 

1,224 

63.74 

153.73 

106.21 

111.82 

$1.76 



I.e. 



M. C. 



2,629.39 

656.98 

76.64 

64.15 

224.18 
1,021.95 



None 

$1,930,186 

$0.01882 

$1.15768 

30.6% 

14,234,782 

$0.00600 
$2.48254 
67.3% 
$1.86679 
$1.40741 

75.4% 

$3,670 

$8,052 

$11,963 

$4.42 

$2.67 
3,370,067 

12,783 

100.76 

200.25 

112.43 

139.21 

$1.49 



4,377.44 
1,972.68 
469.93 



890.40 
3,333.01 



326* 
7,196,868 
$0.01806 
$1.08754 



23.7% 
,005,742 



$0.00522 
$2.16809 
59.4% 
$2.04889 
$1.27444 

622% 

$3,622 

$9,061 

$15,242 

$4.54 

$2.73 
14,782,252 

221,847 

150.35 

148.53 
147.65 
148.93 

$1.27 



1,746.46 

35.07 

6.07 

72.78 
113.92 

3.79 

3.79 

42.60 
50.18 

$254,046 

$0.02123 

$1.29216 

20.8% 
$966,018 

$0.00644 

$2.86284 

79.1% 

$2.16404 

$1.78844 

78.2% 

$5,177 
$19,687 
$24,864 

$3-22 

$1.99 
533,742. 

3,165 
133.46 
173.49 

73.54 
109.18 

$2.02 



w. c. 



1,022.74 

48.72 

20.11 

9.63 

20.30 
98.76 



None 

$287,192 

$0.01508 

$1.25566 

29.6% 
$672,647 

$0.00826 

$3.02255 

68.5% 

$1.05307 

48.4% 

$4,087 

$9,250 

$13,496 

$3.98 

$2.47 
451,264 

21,290 

96.45 

168.43 

105.33 

121.65 

$1.85 



* Including mileage outside of city limits, but over which a suburban service is maintained; such 
mileage being that over which electrification should logically be extended. 



350 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMINALS 



ROADS ENTERING GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT 



Length of line operated in United States 
inclusive of trackage rights, miles .... 

Mileage owned, Illinois, main track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, 2d & c main track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, industrial tracks 

Mileage owned, Illinois, yards & sidings. 

Mileage owned, Illinois, total 

Mileage owned, Chicago, main track. . . . 

Mileage owned, Chicago, 2d main track. . 

Mileage owned, Chicago, yards & sidings. 

Mileage owned, Chicago, total 

Revenue from passenger service, Illinois. 

Revenue per passenger per mUe, Illi- 
nois 

Passenger earnings per train mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, Illinois. . . . 

Freight revenue, Illinois 

Freight revenue, per ton mile, Illinois . . . 

Freight earnings, per train mile, Illinois . . 

Proportion to total earnings 

Total earnings per train nule, Illinois. . . . 

Total operating expenses per train mile, 
Illinois 

Proportion operating expenses to earn- 
ings from operation, Illinois 

Passenger earnings per mile road 

Freight earnings per mile road 

Gross earnings per mile road 

Average compensation of engineers 

Average compensation of firemen 

Total revenue train mileage 

Total non-revenue train mileage 

Coal consumed per mile in pounds, pas- 
senger 

Coal consumed per niileinpounds,freight 

Coal consumed per mile in pounds, 
switching 

Coal consumed per mile in pounds, aver- 
age 

Average cost of coal at distributing point 



B. &0. 



4,525.51 

382.74 

11.49 

27.31 

112.85 

534.39 

8.09 

8.05 

25.67 

41.81 

^,517,360 

$0.02000 

$1.32788 

28.4% 

^3,782,923 

$0.00682 

$4.18917 

61.5% 

$2.66920 

$1.75771 

65.8% 

$3,791 

$9,452 

$13,336 

$3.74 

$2.07 

1,999,546 

7,834 

101.20 
212.69 

114.45 

150.32 
$1.06 



C. G. W. 



818.36 

153.12 

6.08 



66.88 
226.08 



16.01 

16.01 

$505,240 

$0.02130 

$0.75231 

19.5% 

52,051,003 

$0.00684 

$1.82766 

79% 

$1.43871 

$1.16432 

80.9% 

$2,235 

$9,072 

$11,415 

$4.05 

$2.40 

1,793,780 

109,368 

108.03 
210.39 

109.74 

163.57 
$2.23 



Ch. Ter. Trf . 



101.70 

73.99 

46.13 

7.92 

76.29 

204.33 

17.77 

16.19 

50.77 

84.73 

$48,043 

$0.00740 



2.9% 
$553,428 



34.2% 
$2.82208 

$1.84674 
65.4% 



$3.49 

$2.21 

572,946 

65,000 

91.10 



214.00 

204.94 
$1.54 



Pere Marq. 



2,362.11 



8.35 
8.35 



None 
$59,526 

$0.02010 
$1.29329 

25.5% 
$167,773 
$0.00819 
$4.34994 

72.1% 
$2.75022 

$5.67682 



$1,445 

$4,071 

$5,646 

$4.44 

$2.03 

84,596 

305 

98.92 
166.64 

131.67 

130.93 

$1.75 



APPENDIX C 



351 



C. & N. W. STATION 



Length of line operated in U. S. inclusive of trackage rights, miles . . 

Mileage owned, Illinois, main track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, second &c. main track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, industrial track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, yards and sidings 

Mileage owned, Illinois, total 

Mileage owned, Chicago, main track 

Mileage owned, Chicago, second main track 

Mileage oTVTied, Chicago, yards and sidings 

Mileage owned, Chicago, total 

Revenue from passenger ser\dce, Illinois 

Revenue per passenger per mile, lUinois 

Passenger earnings per train mile, Ilhnois 

Proportion to total earnings, Illinois 

Freight revenue, Illinois 

Freight revenue per ton mile, Illinois 

Freight earnings per train mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, Illinois 

Total earnings per train mile, lUinois 

Total operating expenses per train mile, Illinois 

Proportion operating expenses to earnings from operation, Illinois. 

Passenger earnings per mile road 

Freight earnings per mile road 

Gross earnings per mile road 

Average compensation of engineers 

Average compensation of firemen 

Total revenue train mileage 

Total non- revenue train mileage 

Coal consumed per mile in pounds, passenger 

Coal consumed per mile in pounds, freight 

Coal consumed per mile in pounds, switching 

Coal consumed per mile in pounds, average 

Average cost of coal at distributing point 



C. & N. W. 



7,622.91 

718.88 
275.57 



615.83 

1,610.28 

34.82 

34.07 

234.34 

303.23 

$1,751,540 

$0.02000 

$1.10559 

28% 

$4,477,080 

$0.00904 

$2.46677 

71.6% 

$1.89904 

$1.23486 



$2,557 

$6,536 

$9,122 

$3.90 

$2.40 

3,290,582 

335,462 

118.08 

197.17 

101.98 

135.26 

$1.86 



352 



ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY TERMNALS 



TRANSFER AND TERMINAL RAILROADS NOT ENTERING PASSENGER 

STATIONS 



Length of line operated in 
U. S. inclusive of trackage 
rights, miles 

Mileage owned, Illinois, main 
track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, second 
&c. main track 

Mileage owned, lUinois, in- 
dustrial tracks 

Mileage owned, Illinois, yards 
and sidings 

Mileage owned, Illinois, total . 

Mileage owned, Chicago, main 
track , 

Mileage o'^ned, Chicago, sec 
ond main track 

Mileage owned, Chicago, yards 
and sidings 

Mileage o^-ned, Chicago, total 

Revenue from passenger ser 
^'ice, Illinois 

Revenue per passenger per 
mile, Illinois 

Passenger earnings per train 
mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 
Illinois 

Freight revenue, Illinois. . . 

Freight revenue, per ton mile 
Illinois 

Freight earnings per train 
mile. lUinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 
Illinois 

Total earnings per train mile, 
Ilhnois 

Total operating expenses per 
train mile. Illinois 

Proportion operating expenses 
to earnings from operation, 
Illinois 

Passenger earnings per mile 
road 

Freight earnings per mile road. 

Gross earnings per mile road . , 

Average compensation of en- 
gineers 

Average compensation of fire- 
men 

Total revenue train mileage . . 

Total non-revenue train mile 



Belt Ry. C. &,C.R. C. Jet. U. S. Yd. C. U. T. 



123.91 



27.14 



19.09 

13.15 

66.36 
98.60 



S2,120,070 



11.50 
1.25 



2.19 



.10 
2.29 



76.00 

23.86 

23.22 

1.63 

27.29 
76.00 

3.15 

2.65 

4.20 
10.00 



128.73 

8.76 
8.54 



C. & I. w. 



98.44 
7.00 
4.00 



101.43 
128.73 

8.77 

8.54 

129.37 
146.68 



$1.31398 



S1.31398 
S0.71108 

54.1% 



$44,812 
$3.72 

$2.38 



81.1% 



age 



Coal consumed per mile in 
pounds, passenger 

Coal consumed per mile in 
pounds, freight 

Coal consumed per mile in 
pounds, switching 

Coal consumed per mile in 
pounds, average • 

Average cost of coal at distri- 
buting point 



175.27 

175.27 

SI. 62 



$82,159 
S3.09 
$2.14 



70.75 
70.75 



$861,818 
$0.01330 
$4.55711 
31.5% 
$1.46107 
$8.82956 

610% 



87.44 
98.44 



$13,478 
$42,771 

$3.65 

$2.27 



119.14 . 

77.01 
79.99 
$1.79 



17.48 
10.73 



3.89 
.03 



.03 



$56,964 
$0.0512 



$50.67983 



$5,309 
$5,309 

$3.49 

$2.05 



181.81 

202.79 

195.85 

$2.00 



APPENDIX C 



353 



TRANSFER AND TERMINAL RAILROADS NOT ENTERING PASSENGER 

STATIONS 



Length of line operated in U. S. 

inclusive of trackage rights, 

miles 

Mileage owned, Illinois, main 

track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, second 

&c. main track 

Mileage owned, Illinois, indus- 
trial tracks 

Mileage owTied, Illinois, yards 

and sidings 

Mileage owned, Illinois, total. . 
Mileage owned, Chicago, main 

track 

Mileage owned, Chicago, second 

main track 

Mileage owned, Chicago, yards 

and sidings 

Mileage owned, Chicago, total. . 
Revenue from passenger service, 

Illinois 

Revenue per passenger per mile, 

Illinois 

Passenger earnings per train 

mile, Illinois 

Proportion to total earnings, 

Illinois 

Freight revenue, Illinois 

Freight revenue per ton mile, 

Illinois 

Freight earnings per train mile, 

Illinois 

Proportion to total ^earnings, 

Illinois 

Total earnings per train mile, 

Illinois 

Total operating expenses per 

train mile, Illinois 

Proportion operating expenses 

to earnings from operation, 

Illinois 

Passenger earnings per mile road 
Freight earnings per mile road 
Gross earnings per mile road . . 
Average compensation of engi- 
neers 

Average compensation of fire 

men , 

Total revenue train mileage . . . 
Total non-revenue train mileage 
Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, passenger 

Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, freight 

Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, switching 

Coal consumed per mile in 

pounds, average 

Average cost of coal at dis- 
tributing point 



111. North. 



21.62 
7.53 



6.76 
14.29 

12.25 



12.25 



$67,117 
$0.24732 
$0.28249 
. 29% 
$0.98540 



$5,697 
$19,876 

$3.57 

$2.25 
237,952 



68.63 
68.63 
$2.04 



Manf . Jet. 



6.32 
1.80 

3.38 

1.14 
6.32 



1.16 
1.16 



$2.97 

$2.97 



C. L. S. & E. 



590.08 
3.07 
2.71 

144.95 



1.76 
1.76 

3.20 

6.72 



3,114,460 
$0.00882 
$5.65022 

80.5% 
$7.01062 

$4.20248 

59.9% 



$1,258 
$15,624 

$3.69 

$2.21 

651,210 

1,837 



228.45 
61.57 
91.57 

$1.22 



E. J. & E. 



236.87 

155.04 

24.68 

28.33 

102.03 
310.08 



12.53 
12.53 



$0.02885 
$0.06062 



$2,023,091 
$0.00525 
$2.67703 
86.9% 
$3.07974 
$1.88945 

61.3% 



$10,619 
$12,216 

$4.11 

$2.47 

755,722 

24,206 

118.35 

165.91 

70.25 

128.08 

$1.71 



Ind. Har. 



213.94 

10.77 
10.77 

6.49 

5.22 
5.03 

' 10.25 



$284,409 
$0.06313 



176% 



$5,119 

$5,372 

$3.76 

$2.27 



109.86 
109.86 

$2.08 




(mov 




PLATE A. ILLINOIS CENTRAL TERMINAL. SCHEDULED TRAIN CHART. 
:movement over tenant roads- trackage and over freeport division not included.; 



J 



I 



\\ 



PLATE B. ILLINOIS CENTRAL TERMINAL. 24 HOUR MOVEMENT AND POWER CURVES 



wmma 



LhlVIr'09 



